Socio-Technical Drivers for Community Renewable Energy Systems – Analysis of Case Studies from India

Renewable energy sector of India has the potential to be a credible alternative for households and communities. The sector accounts for approximately 13 per cent of the national energy capacity, including technologies such as solar grid/ off – grid generation, wind power, small hydro power, biomass/ biogas, and waste to energy. Statistics related to implementation illustrate the scope of tapping the renewable energy sector comprehensively, esp. for decentralized, household and community level applications. This paper analyses on – ground case studies and projects from various renewable energy categories, specifically the socio – technical and community aspects that play a significant role in successful Renewable Energy Technologies (henceforth RET) implementation. The distilled positive and negative drivers include technical, economic considerations, policy and regulatory, environmental aspects, market/ business models, and social/ community linked aspects. Case studies describe the need for a system based and stakeholder engagement approach where all possible stakeholders and their issues are envisaged and taken into account. Use of an evaluating framework is suggested to ensure successful community models of RETs and mass adoption of renewable technologies.


India's Energy Security Outlook
The United Nations launched Sustainable Energy for All Initiative with the overall objective of attaining universal energy access by the year 2030.In this context, India's energy scenario and future projections assume significance.India's current energy mix is highly skewed towards fossil fuels, with renewable sources accounting for 13% installed power generation and 4% of the energy mix (see Table 1).According to Central Electricity Authority (CEA, 2016), the overall installed capacities of various modes of power generation are given as below.As seen from Table 1, close to 70 per cent of India's electricity generation capacities are dependent on coal and natural gas.Sargsyan, Bhatia, Banerjee, and Raghunathan (2011) estimated that India's coal reserves shall last only another 45 years if current usage rates were maintained.Projections, however, suggest higher per capita energy consumption and appliance usage in coming decades (World Bank, 2008;Bhattacharyya, 2015).Globally, India is the third largest energy consumer at present -by 2035, the energy use pattern is expected to increase by 3-4 times, while its' population is projected to cross 1.5 billion (A., Kumar, K., Kumar, Kaushik, Sharma, & Mishra, 2010).
Energy access and security issues are likely to extend in short -term future.As per International Energy Agency (IEA, 2012) estimates, approximately 150 million persons across India will not have access to electricity even by 2030 (cited in Bhattacharyya, Palit, & Kishore, 2014).As per existing scenario, energy access in rural areas has been estimated for 95.6 percent of Indian villages (CEA, 2014;Palit, Garimella, Shardul, & Chaudbury, 2015) though household electricity coverage has only reached an upper level of 67% (Census of India, 2011).Close to 700 million persons use traditional biomass sources for cooking (e.g., dung, crop waste and firewood) (Smith & Sagar, 2014), and further, 77.5 million households (approximately 400 million persons) rely on kerosene for domestic lighting (Census of India, 2011).
Energy poverty and access issues in India are predominant in rural areas on account of lack of grid extension and affordability.Accordingly, the Government of India set up the Rural Electricity Supply Technology (REST) Mission ( 2001) with a target of 'power for all' by 2012.This was followed by the consequent launch of Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY).Outreach under RGGVY was estimated to be 23.67 million households, of which 21.27 million were said to be Below Poverty Line (BPL) households (Balachandra 2013).
In recent years, rural electrification has received a push through multiple schemes and programmes (see Samanta 2015 for various schemes and programmes related to village electrification) including Deendayal Upadhyaya Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (DDUGVKY, earlier RGGVY) & Remote Village Electrification Programme (RVEP) (note 1).Government of India has set the target for electrification of all remaining villages by 2018 (GoI, 2017).This, however, needs to be understood in light of the currently accepted definition of electrification in India, which is considerably limited by international standards (note 2).Policy wise, a minimum benchmark of consumption of one unit/ household / day as a merit good was established in the 2005 National Electrification Policy (MoP, 2017).Hence, achieving complete electrification may not assuredly provide energy security to all households.Further, access to electricity itself may not be adequate in terms of fulfilling quality aspects, as supply remains poor in rural areas and during night hours when needed (Palit & Chaurey, 2011).
This paper analyzes community renewable energy systems as a viable alternative for ensuring energy access and security.Renewable energy systems across the scale have been implemented in India (section 1.2).The scope for community energy systems remains promising in the context of commercially viable technologies, a developing business ecosystem, locally relevant renewable resources and a productive rather than minimalistic approach to energy generation.Distributed generation, or off-grid renewable technologies have not yet been scaled up to the optimized potential due to multiple factors such as post -implementation service and maintenance, lack of future intent, and inability to meet growing aspirations, among others.Case studies of successfully implemented projects yield parameters that if taken into account, could lead to development of successful and sustainable projects.

Renewable Energy Technologies in India: Progress and Challenges
India, on account of its geographical position and terrain diversity is abundantly bestowed with multiple renewable energy resources including Solar, Wind, and Hydropower.India annually receives approximately 300 days of sunshine (5000 trillion kW of power) (Kapoor & Dwivedi, 2017).Mani and Dhingra (2013) noted the advances made by India which is currently at the 5 th position globally in terms of installed wind energy capacity.
Renewable energy projects in India may vary from large scale hydropower, wind, and solar projects to small, local/ village level off-grid, mini -grid and hybrid RET projects.During the 12 th Five Year Plan (2012-2017) the Ministry of New & Renewable Energy (MNRE) proposed a target of 30 000 MW from all sources of renewable energy.As of December 2014, India's total renewable energy installed capacity was estimated at 33.8 GW, or an increase of 30 GW or 1000 per cent from 3.9 GW in 2002-03.Future progress in renewable capacity expansion is slated at more than 5 times the current scenario (from 32 000 to 175 000 MW by 2022) (MNRE 2015).The breakup of this target is: 100 GW Solar, 60 GW Wind, 10 GW Biomass and 5 GW Small Hydro (Lok Sabha 2015).
Research in context of India's renewable energy adoption has been focused on specific technologies and the issues and challenges.Raman (2012) detailed the technical components of a Solar Photovoltaic (PV) system and the techno -economic feasibility of solar PV systems for rural electrification in India.Madrigal and Porter (2013) presented the scenario of global wind energy capacity development situating India behind only China, United States, Germany, and Spain with 6.6 percent of worldwide coverage.Energy in India is a state subject and considerable policy and institutional shifts occur across states.With energy policies, regulations and outlook shifting from one state to the other, some states have capitalized on the available resources whereas other states have failed to do so.S. Pandey, et al., (2012) discussed determinants for success in promotion of solar energy in the state of Rajasthan, highlighting the significance of the policy, infrastructure, facilitation and governance aspects.Similarly, the progress in the state of Tamil Nadu in wind energy promotion and implementation has especially been considerable with 51 percent of installed capacities vis a vis the state's wind energy potential.George and Banerjee (2009) studied the impact of increasing wind power penetration on the dominant grid and projected a positive scenario for the state taking into account the annual load duration curve as a methodology for calculating peak load capacity and peak energy requirement.
The study clearly illustrated the scope for RET projects to be dominant electricity providers for the state.Despite the evidence of slow uptake, India continues to have an incredible opportunity in the present space to edge forward in renewable energy technology application while providing energy to all its citizens.Further, considering grid expansion issues as detailed in the next section, off -grid energy access will be a prominent strategy for the nation.

Off-grid or Decentralized RE Systems
Grid Connected systems refer to those projects which are connected with electricity grid and supply power to the grid, while Off-Grid refers to those energy systems which have been designed for local use and not connected with electricity grid.Grid expansion is favoured by the beneficiaries for multiple reasons including the enabling policy and institutional framework, financing institutions, and finally, micro level household socio-economic position (Reddy & Srinivas 2009).Other reasons related to favourability towards grid extension include reliability of power supply, fixed duration, and allowance for multiple usage purposes (TERI 2009), (cited in Palit & Chaurey, 2011).
RETs such as solar photovoltaic (PV), biomass gasification and pico/ micro hydro-power are considered as alternative technologies in scenarios where central grid -based electricity supply is technically or economically infeasible or inadequate.Beck and Martinot (2004) defined distributed generation as electricity generation close to or on -site, and in need -based quantities, in comparison to large amounts generated in big sized centralized power plants.Palit and Chaurey (2011) construed off-grid energy systems as being inclusive of local mini -grid systems supplying a village or community, as well as standalone power supply systems for individual household usage (including solar home systems, individual solar lanterns, etc).Further, Kaundinya, Balachandra and Ravindranath, (2009) suggested two levels of decentralization: village level where meeting rural needs is the focus; and industry level, with focus on fulfilling industry demand and excess power handed over to the grid.Off-grid, or decentralized energy systems are favoured in context of remote location, grid infeasibility, and the ability to balance power needs through optimized usage of available renewable energy solutions (see Palit 2013).Avoided cost of transmission and distribution is an added advantage.Decentralized solutions also promote costeffective usage and self -reliance.Table 2 shows the status of off-grid RE systems deployment in India.

Literature Review
A number of studies have provided a comprehensive overview of renewable energy technologies and their uptake in India (see Bhattacharya and Jana, 2009;A., Kumar, K., Kumar, Kaushik, Sharma, & Mishra, 2010).Khare, Nema, and Baredar (2013) presented an overview of solar and wind based renewable energy in India.Kapoor, Pandey, Jain, and Nandan, (2014) traced the evolution of solar energy policies and status in India across five year plans and challenges and barriers to its successful scaling up.Palit and Chaurey (2011) collated best practices across South Asia in context of off-grid rural electrification.International Finance Corporation (IFC 2012) compared market trends in context of Solar Off-Grid Lighting across India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, Indonesia, Cambodia and Philippines.A comprehensive global review of renewable energy technologies and their global deployment scenario was given by Ellabban, Abu-Rub, and Blaabjerg, (2014).
Research around renewable energy technologies have focused on the policy and regulatory frameworks, and the technical feasibility and infrastructure constraints for large scale RET adoption (Geller, Schaeffer, Szklo, & Tolmasquim, 2004;Schmid 2012, Sargsyan, Bhatia, Banerjee, & Raghunathan, 2011).A number of studies have also focused on multiple types of barriers related to RET penetration.For instance Khare, Nema, and Baredar, (2013) analysed supportive policy instruments and regulatory, institutional, financial and technological barriers (drawn from IDFC, 2010).Eswarlal, Dey, and Shankar, (2011) highlighted 14 variables through Interpretive structural modeling for implementation of renewable energy, naming some as 'enablers' (see also Painuly (2001) for seven major barriers to RET penetration).Cust, Singh, and Neuhoff, (2007) studied multiple RET case studies to highlight techno -economic feasibility conditions, potential organizational models and consequent barriers influencing alignment of economics, institutional mechanisms, and participatory approach for largescale RET implementation at local level.
Literature in context of decentralized or off-grid electricity generation technologies has also been well-developed.A comprehensive review of decentralized approaches in Africa was presented by Tenenbaum, Chris, Tilak, and James (2014).World Bank (2008) provided a set of guidelines for decision making for design of sustainable off-grid rural electrification projects, including, but not limited to availability of technology choices, delivery mechanisms, financial and business model related dimensions, as also level of community involvement (see Board, 2008).A 2011 primer by Alliance for Rural Electrification concisely presented the technological, design, cost structures and business model characteristics of hybrid mini -grids (Rolland & Glania, 2011).Kumar, Mohanty, Palit, and Chaurey, (2009) proposed a multi-step decision making tool for formulation of each stage of rural electrification projects (including both grid connected and off-grid projects).Bhattacharyya (2012) conducted a review of alternative Off-grid electrification options, including the sustainability dimension, recommending a hybrid approach.Some examples from the ground where RET projects have been implemented at community level have shown potential while bringing forth challenges which need reflection in order for successfully scaling up.Hiremath, Kumar, Balachandra, Ravindranath, and Raghunandan, (2009) showcased the potentialities of off-grid RET contribution towards electricity production and consumption through case studies across possible technologies (bioenergy, solar, wind and hydro).On ground implementation case of RET for ensuring electricity access to remote villages in interior state of Rajasthan through off-grid renewables was shared by Chaurey, Ranganathan, and Mohanty, (2004).In another instance, Kanase-Patil, Saini, and Sharma, (2011) prepared an Integrated Renewable Energy Optimization Model (IREOM) for decentralized electrification of a cluster of 3 villages of Ranikhet reserved forest range of Uttarakhand state considering seasonal availability of resources and complementary demand profiles, at specific reliability values.Based on estimations of the average peak load of a remote rural household, Nouni, Mullick and Kandpal, (2008), recommended that villages with less than 50 kW peak load could be approached on priority for RET based decentralized electricity supply.A techno -economic feasibility analysis of two scenarios of rural village electrification (minimal energy access and productive energy access) through standalone rural village grids in Indonesia was carried out by Blum, Wakeling, and Schmidt, (2013).Sen and Bhattacharyya, (2014) proposed hybrid RET combination for fulfilling energy demand of a remote Chhattisgarh village using HOMER as an analytical tool.
Research on public perception of consumers & stakeholders has also been well -documented (see Ruggiero, Onkila, & Kuittinen, 2014;Walker, Wiersma, & Bailey, 2014) In a study of a U.K. community RET project, the findings suggested reduction of psychological distance and integration of the project into daily lives of direct participants, with consequent increase in awareness, acceptance of renewables and low -carbon technologies, and increase in sustainable/ pro-environmental behavior (Rogers, Simmons, Convery, & Weatherall 2012).Adams and Bell (2015) used an energy equity assessment tool to study two local energy generation projects and recommended application of perspectives based on equity and distributional justice at multiple phases of project planning and implementation.
Finally, recent research has focused on social, institutional and equity related concerns for decentralized local RET adoption.In recent years, advanced technologies have emerged around the creation of smart grid infrastructure, allowing energy and power sharing to shift from being a traditionally centralized, one way process from the generator and distributor to the customer, to a two way process that allows participation of the customer in generation, sharing, and benefiting from local power generation (see Sood, Fischer, Eklund, & Brown 2009; Alvial-Palavicino, Garrido-Echeverría, Jiménez-Estévez, Reyes, & Palma-Behnke 2011).Walker, Simcock, and Smith, (2012) studied the diverse range and meanings of Community Energy Systems in U.K. identifying their benefits, challenges and policy aspects.Newer approaches to decentralized electricity supply have dwelt on involvement of civil society, local municipal bodies, energy cooperatives, and prosumers (Bauwens 2013;Johnson & Hall, 2014;Van Der Schoor, & Scholtens, 2015).

Emergence of Decentralized Renewable Energy Models
Uptake of renewable energy technologies in large projects has so far been guided by subsidies, exemptions and large scale investments by the state or private investments.Mechanisms explored in this context have included Renewable Purchase Obligation (RPO), Renewable Energy Certificate (REC), Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), RGGVY scheme (household electrification and rural electricity infrastructure building through grid extension), Decentralized Distributed Generation Programme (DDG) where grid expansion is not feasible, Remote Village Electrification (RVE) Programme for areas not covered under DDG, and finally, Off-Grid and Decentralized Solar Application under Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM).India's on ground implementation scenario for RET projects is at best mixed.Complexities surrounding the availability of land for large scale projects, frontloading of high capital investments, poor implementation of stated incentives and return options such as solar purchase obligations, renewable energy certificates, have weighed down the sector (see CAG, 2015).It is in this context that the relevance of decentralized, off -grid and mini grid projects becomes apparent.
With these and emerging stress on combating climate change through a low carbon economy perspective, efficient, demand -based, and distributed generation technologies have emerged as an alternative.The local, participative, and collective benefit nature of these systems of power generation have emphasized the need for public engagement and participation.Apart from strict techno -economic analysis of a potential project, inclusion of social, cultural, and behavioural factors are viewed as equally crucial to the success of a project.There is a need to study community oriented perspectives that crucially affect the ultimate success or failure of decentralized renewable energy technology implementation projects.As the case studies illustrate, private, public -private partnerships, & community models are part of future approaches.

Methodology
This paper focuses on the potential for development of decentralized, off -grid community models based on RETs in India.Accordingly, the paper tracks 9 case studies from different parts of India in the area of renewable energy technologies.For this purpose case studies have been drawn from Centre for Science and Environment's compendium of cases (CSE, 2014).The selection of case studies was influenced by the diversity of projects, innovations, areas of concern and learning and challenges presented by the case.A mix of government, private and NGO management cases were taken up to present across the sector issues.Selected RET typologies included solar, wind, micro -hydel, and biomass based projects.Table 4 showcases each case profile, pricing and management model and institutional support received.Through a synthesis of challenges, problems, learning's and innovations exemplified by each case study, the author arrives at a framework of evaluation that would be of assistance in understanding the issues and challenges in implementation.To build a resilient community model, specific lessons could be applied while designing such models.This paper proposes an evaluation framework which may be used across renewable energy technologies.
The framework also proposes evaluation parameters specific to each of these five sectors.for large portions of the year are beneficial; direct incident radiation availability is a key parameter in case of solar projects; and similarly, maximized potential and kinetic energy for small hydro power projects can alter the project success ratios considerably.

Policy & Regulatory Issues
One unanticipated consequence of the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE)'s subsidy provisions in solar off-grid systems (note 3) is the lack of accountability and long term interest by official functionaries as well as recipients.This has led to supply of substandard equipment that becomes dysfunctional within months, or needs constant repair.Instances on the ground have shown that lack of ownership results in grey market sale of the subsidized systems, as well as corruption (such as on -paper installation) etc (see CAG, 2015).The lack of interest in the long term sustainability of the project is also evident in the state response, since it is the states that are responsible for third party monitoring and operation and maintenance (see Borah, R.R., Palit D., & Mahapatra S., (2014)).In this disappointing scenario, the example of state of Chhattisgarh, which has implemented a very successful solar mini -grid programme deserves special mention.The specific actions undertaken by the government include standardization of the operation and maintenance system, with a 3 tier monitoring and service model in place (CSE, 2014), common resources such as schools, tribal hostels, police camps etc. serving as the point of location for the mini grid among others, and, planning in advance about growing aspirations and demands from the community to remain relevant and avoid conversion to conventional fuels such as diesel powered generators/ LPG.Another aspect that is relevant from the policy and regulatory aspect refers to the degree of regulation for the private market, whether it be equipment providers, suppliers of irrigation pumps, or fee -forservice models.There is increasing recognition that the regulatory agencies need to be aware of the avenues for misrepresentation and faulty supplies in grey markets.Regulators need to be cautious about allowing profitability of private players while reassuring customers, preventing shift to conventional fuels on account of malpractice, substandard or faulty equipment, or other similar actions.

Market/ Business Model Related Parameters
In the recent years, a number of business models have evolved in the renewable energy sector.Ranging from feefor -service models, cooperatives, public -private -partnerships, and private enterprises, the Indian market is well on the way to maturing (See GNESD, 2014 for a close look at various community based models for mini-grids in India).Essential strategies for the sector include capacity building of local entrepreneurs and providing support for initial capital investments, viability gap funding, improving margins, backup in case of system shortfalls and adequate infrastructure.Successful projects were identified as those that had given adequate thought to training and capacity building of entrepreneurs, mechanics, and supervisors in the sector.Evolution of business models that favour both the developer and the customer retain a basic advantage in terms of convenience, budgeting, and preventing the free lunch attitude (e.g., case of gram power in Rajasthan with pre-paid electricity credits and smart meters to prevent power thefts).Communities have also acknowledged the overall cost reduction advantage brought by RET based models even though they may prefer hybrid models (complement renewable energy with other conventional modes such as kerosene, or diesel generators), for instance, in case of irrigation (e.g., solar water pumps, and the experience of Chhatisgarh).Managing supply variability was found to be crucial especially for projects based on biomass, with competing industries (e.g.cement and brick kilns, packaging industry) willing to pay equal or higher amounts for the biomass feeds (e.g.rice husk based biomass plants in Chhatisgarh).Added services and customer friendly practices were found to be positively linked, for instance, to biogas implementation (instance of cooperatives in Gujarat where profits from milk supplied by cattle owners could be deducted as loan instalments for their biogas plants.Additionally, the cooperative assisted through construction material, and providing free spare parts and access to technicians).

Environmental Considerations
Environmental issues also play a prominent role in defining the long-term trajectory of the project.Each renewable energy technology sector, be it solar, wind, small hydro, or biomass, has a positive or negative association with the environment.A key element here is land -acquiring land for big infrastructural projects, whether solar, wind, or hydro, may impinge upon forest land and cause ecosystem fragmentation.Similarly, a specific principle related to biodiversity conservation is that of safe distance from forests and habitations.Wind power projects create noise, flicker, and electrocution related hazards for human beings and animals.At the same time, project developers need to take into account the requirement of operationalizing projects at desirable hotspots for maximizing power generation.Projects that are able to successfully overcome the trade -offs between these two have improved potential for success.Environmental considerations are particularly high in significance for small hydro power and the life of a river.involvement, managing social concerns, and planning for future needs.In the long-term, ensuring minimal environmental damage while meeting increasing energy demands, and choices for grid engagement need addressing.Providing a holistic overview at the planning stage itself allows state functionaries, private developers, and local beneficiaries to take a whole system approach, and actively debate long-term issues in addition to the immediate concerns of project siting, scale,and economics typically under consideration.

Recommendations and Conclusion
Renewable Energy Technologies portend a very different future for India if accepted as a mainstream option.Careful design of schemes, incentives, and exploiting technological advancements to maximize power generation potential has laid the ground for the sector in India.However, at best, the utilization rates across sectors remain at 20 -60 per cent of the capacities even in best performing states in India, with most states yet to take benefits from the sector.Ensuring wide stakeholder involvement esp. at community level, and careful customization of projects is a necessity.
Examples from case studies have illustrated both concerns and pitfalls, and positive deviance from the norm.Designing of community models with participation, technical inputs, training and capacity building, and long term economic gain has the potential to reemphasize RETs as a way forward for universal energy access and security, as well as income generation through community livelihoods.Four recommendations can be put forth based on the framework of community models of RET in Indian Context namely: 1) Skill development in RETs can be one major revenue stream for rural youth, who can also be encouraged to turn renewable energy entrepreneurs and provide at -scale models for household/ community and special institutional requirements.
2) As technological advancements hold considerable promise for further diminishing the gap between conventional coal powered generation, the need to invest in R & D needs encouragement.Special SEZ's for RET technology may be considered as high precision manufacturing will remain to be a crucial parameter.
3) Research & Development Centres supporting rigorous and real -time RET data collection and analysis along the lines of meteorological data collection is also one specific area that needs consideration of policy makers.4) Standardization of models and operating procedures in the case of community models is the need of the hour and states have shown the way forward (instance of Chhattisgarh for off -grid solar, including maintenance and service system architecture)

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Grid Connected Renewable Energy in India (MW) Source: Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, January 31, 2014

Table 1 .
Total installed power generation capacity in India as of 29 th February 2016

Table 2 .
Deployment of off-grid RE systems in India upto 31 March 2014

Table 3 .
Case Studies analyzed in context of RET Application in India

Table 4 .
Drivers of RET Application -Analysis of Case Studies drawn from CSE, 2014 Building multiple Small Hydro Power projects over a single river, if not carefully designed to