The Mediating Role of Stress on the Effect of Self-Control and Self-Management on Level of Hope in Coaches

The aim of this study was to the role of stress on the effect of self-control and self-management on hope level in coaches. The research population consisted of 196 (80 females, 116 males) physical education teachers working in schools in Kayseri. Participants were administered the Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10) and Adult Hope Scale (AHS). As a result of the correlation analysis, there was a positive and significant relationship between the self-control and self-management skills and level of hope scores of the coaches (p<0.01). In addition, there was a high and negative correlation between self-control and self-management skills and perceived stress scores of coaches (p<0.01). As a result of the regression analysis, the level of hope of the coaches on self-control and self-evaluation; on the level of self-control and self-assessment of coaches; The perceived stress of the coaches was a significant predictor of the level of hope (p<0.01). In conclusion, this study showed that perceived stress directly affects self-control and self-management.


Introduction
defined leadership as, "the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals.Leadership is an effective process for achieving group activities" (Bass, 1985).Leadership in sport is to set goals in the team, how to achieve these goals, and to determine responsibilities and roles (Anshel, 1977).The person who sets targets within the group is naturally a leader candidate.Therefore, the coach is the effective leader.Therefore, the trainer should be able to develop and teach the skills (Yukl, 1981).
In order for the athletes to be successful, they must perform good training and technical-tactical work.For this reason, athletes need a good coach.The coach is the person who directs, runs and prepares the athletes by combining theoretical knowledge and experience (Doğan, 2004).This puts a lot of pressure on coaches and causes them to experience stress in business life (Budak & Sürgevil, 2005).Coaches work more efficiently when they check the stress level.
Stress is a condition that occurs when the organism is physically and psychologically threatened and forced (Baltaş & Baltaş, 2002).Stress is a psychologically stressing process that affects human physical and health status (Güney, 2001).The right direction of stress encourages the person to achieve hope and goals.Stress is an early warning system in situations that threaten happiness, health, trust, self-esteem and thought.When it is not controlled, it may cause illness, deterioration and death (Norfolk, 1989).
According to Kanfer and Kaoly (1972), human behavior is influenced by the environmental conditions.Self-control and self-management is an attempt to use self-control and self-management as a means of managing people's behavior and breaking the environmental control mechanism.Self-control and self-management, serves as a feedback system and involves three subsystems: self-monitoring (SM), self-evaluation (SE) and self-reinforcement (SR).In SM, the individual monitors the status and content of target behaviors.In SE, individual target behavior is compared with the internal standard of this behavior and problems are identified.In SR, the individual rewards or punishes himself as open or closed.The focus of attention is redirected and the current and expected conditions are evaluated.The behavior is maintained or altered by the individuals effort towards internal agencying.These skills are the basic self-regulatory processes that can be applied to provide self-control.Rehm (1977) examined the relationship between self-control model and depression.In a later The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS)-10 item version was developed by Cohen et al. (1983) to measure the individual's appraisals of stressful life events (Cohen et al., 1983).Its validity and reliability studies were performed by Erci (2006) and Bilge et al. (2009) and were then adapted to Turkish society.Items were designed to reveal the degree to which respondents found their lives unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overwhelming in the last one month.The PSS-10 is a five-point Likert scale ranging from (0= never to 4= very often).There are four reverse items which are written positively (items 4, 5, 7 and 8).Total scores range from 0 to 40 with higher scores indicating higher perceived stress.The internal consistencies of the original scale change from 0.75 to 0.86.In the present study PSS-10 had internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of α=0.71.

Adult Hope Scale (AHS)
The Adult Hope Scale developed by Snyder et al. (1991) includes 12 questions for individuals aged 15 years and over.Likert type four digits (1= otally wrong and totally true =4).So, the scores range will be between 8 and 32. 4 questions are about the bus in operation, 4 questions are diversion and other questions are not scored.Total scores of subscales of the bus will constitute the overall score of hope.The higher the scores, the greater the hopes.The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated to be 0.73.In the present study AHS had internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha) of α=0.75.

Self-Control and Self-Management Scale (SCMS)
SCMS, the original form developed by Mezo (2009), was adapted to Turkish culture by Akın, Demirci and Çardak (2012).The scale consists of six-point Likert type and 16 items.Total scale score range is 0-80 on the SCMS, 0-30 on the Self-Monitoring Subscale (SMS), and 0-25 on each of the Self-Empowerment Subscale (SRS) and the Self-Assestment Subscale (SES).The Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient of the scale was calculated to be 0.80.In this study, the Cronbach alpha internal consistency coefficient was 0.76.High scores indicate high levels of self-control and self-management.

Data Analysis
The data obtained in the research were presented as frequency (f), percentage (%), arithmetic mean (X ̄) and standard deviation (SS).Pearson Correlation Coefficient, Simple and Muliple Regression Analysis were used for the relationship between variables.The SPSS package software was utilized for analyses of collected data; and significance was determined as p <0.05.

Results
Table 2 shows there was a positive and significant relationship between the self-control and self-management skills with the level of hope scores of the coaches (p <0.01).There was a high, negative and significant correlation between self-control and self-management skills with perceived stress scores of coaches (p <0.01).In addition, there was a high, negative and significant correlation between perceived stress scores and level of hope scores of coaches (p <0.01).Tables 3 to 6 show the regression analysis, the level of hope of the coaches on self-control and self-management (F =37.962); on the level of self-control and self-management of coaches (F =35.054); stress perceived by coaches was seen as a significant predictor of hope level (F =21.566, p <0.01).Moreover, it was seen that perceived stress and self-control and self-management were a significant predictor of the level of hope of coaches (F =22.357, p <0.01).

Discussion
Hope is an important way of thinking that guides human life.When we think that this thought is formed from childhood, the studies with children are considered important.Therefore, the development and acquisition of hopeful ideas will make children more ready for life.In our country, there are studies about the level of hope of students (Akman & Korkut, 1993;Denizli, 2004;Kemer, 2006;Kemer & Atik, 2005), however, there is no study on the level of hope of coaches.
Self-control and self-management contribute to one's hope.Self-control and self-management are an optimistic construct.Coaches who are self-control and self-management can deal with potential stressors effectively.On the contrary, coaches who suspect their own abilities to control stressful events suffer more distresses which may impair their level of functioning.In light of this, high self-control and self-management coaches incline to perceive stressful events and obstacles with less apprehension and may regard this as a good chance for them to prove themselves.The results of this study demonstrated that high self-control and self-management coaches incline to create more agency thinking to pursue goal, or more pathways thinking to generate alternative paths to succeed.Other research also supported that high self-control and self-management affects how person cope with negative events (Asselmann et al., 2016).High self-control coaches are able to generate more pathways and agency thinking than low self-control and self-management coaches.
Stress is an important mediator in the association between self-control and self-management with hope.Improving self-control and self-management enables coaches to employ high hope to combat with stressors.On the other hand, coaches who lacked hopeful thinking often failed to work with high self-control and self-management.Support our findings, McGregor indicated that achievable goals are associated with well-being (McGregor & Little, 1998).
The findings showed a high and positive relationship between the self-control and self-management skills of the coaches with the level of hope.In a similar study, a linear relationship was found between hope, self-control and subjective well-being (Liu, Zeng, & Quan, 2018).Accordingly, as the self-control and self-management skills increases, levels of hope increase.Previous research has contributed to our study (Magaletta & Oliver, 1999;Salanova, Lorente, Chambel, & Martínez, 2011) in the sense that hope is a powerful psychological mechanism that partially mediates the link between self-control and stress, at least among coaches.
According to our findings, there was a high, negative and significant relationship between the self-control and self-management skills of the coaches with the perceived stress.Accordingly, as the self-control and self-management skills increase, perceived stress levels decrease.
In addition, there was a high, negative and significant relationship between the perceived stress of the coaches with level of hope.Accordingly, as the perceived stress levels decreases, self-control and self-management skills increase.As a result of a similar study, daily hope provides protective benefits by keeping negative emotions low, while also contributing to recovery from stress.The dynamic linkages between hope, stress, and emotion were further moderated by individual differences in hope.Compared with those low in hope, high-hope individuals showed diminished stress reactivity and more effective emotional recovery (Ong, Edwards, & Bergeman, 2006).The findings are consistent with some research results.
In conclusion, this investigation shows that perceived stress affects self-control and self-management directly.Coachs high in perceived stress are more likely to be low in self-control and self-management.Therefore, the current findings increase our understanding of the relationships between self-control and self-management and perceived stress.
This study is interesting and has implications for interventions that can reduce perceived stress.The limitation of the study was that the participants were physical education teachers and this study should be replicated to target other coach populations in order to establish a more robust relationship between the examined structures, because the generalization of the results is somewhat limited.

Table 1 .
Demographic characteristics of the participants (n=196) In Table1, approximately one third 40.8% of the coaches who participated in the research are female and two thirds 59.2% are male coaches.While 46.9% of the participant coaches had college education, 29.6% of the coaches worked for 11-15 years in the school they are currently working.2.2 Instruments2.2.1 Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-10)

Table 3 .
Regression test results regarding the relation between "Self-Control/Self-Management" and "Hope Level" variables

Table 4 .
Regression test results regarding the relation between "Hope Level" and "Self-Control/Self-Management" variables

Table 5 .
Regression test results regarding the relation between "Hope Level" and "Perceived Stress" variables