Road to Peace Education : Peace and Violence from the Viewpoint of Children

It is important to adopt the concept of peace as a culture when human rights, democracy, coexistence and diversity are respected at the social level. Particularly at an early age, introducing this concept to individuals can prevent violent cultures from finding social or individual support. In this sense, individuals are expected to disseminate peace through education and to exclude violence. In this research, it was tried to show how primary school students perceive the concepts of peace and violence in their daily lives. It has been tried to determine how pupils describe these concepts in their pictorial image, literary and verbal expressions. The research was designed as qualitative research from qualitative research approaches. 68 primary school students participated in the research. Students have identified four main themes on the peace issue: “universal / inter-communal peace, inter-group / social peace, inter-personal peace and individual peace.” Twenty-five sub-themes related to these 4 main themes have been created. As for violence, four main themes have emerged: “socio-cultural violence, direct violence, group violence and ecological violence”. Sixteen sub-themes have been expressed, depending on these four main themes. It has been found out that in the general sense, they perceive the concept of peace mostly in a personal-individual sense and they directly perceive the concept of violence as socio-cultural violence.


Introduction
With the increase in religion-, ethnic origin-, politically or economically based social problems in national and international levels, in internal conflicts and in forced migrations, the notions of "peace" and "violence" that draw attention in historical contexts are now concentrated upon more.It is being emphasized that it is necessary to establish a social structure that is based on freedom, justice, democracy and toleration (UNESCO, 2005;Demir, 2011) and this process is supported by peace education programs.These changes and the peace education programs initiated contribute to the development of societies however they do not provide a reduction in violence as expected and cause the universal peace not to be sufficiently evident in the implementation level.For example, the attacks in Ankara on October 10, 2015 and in Paris on November 13, 2015 show that peace has not been truly established in the universal level and that violence can unsettle social peace anytime.Beside these incidents, in Turkey, the social problems on-going in Southeast and East Anatolian regions, ethnic conflicts throughout the country, the projection of the war going on in the country's border Syria on the world and especially on Turkey intensify the necessity to reconsider the way the notions "peace" and "violence" are perceived and the level of the relationship between each two notions.
The notion of peace is defined for the first time by Hugo Grotius in 1625 (Dobrosielski, 1987) as the end of war or direct violence (Castro & Galace, 2010).This definition which can be called as negative peace means only that violence or war ends.Galtung (1969) defines the notion of peace in two dimensions, positive and negative.Negative peace is similar to Grotius' definition and is the absence or ceasing of direct violence.Positive peace represents a social justice environment where there is no structural (social), ecological and direct violence, which means negativities or where these negativities can be settled (Sağkal, Türnüklü, & Totan, 2012).In this context, peace does not refer to a prevention of violence only, but also to individual, interpersonal and social respect, forgiveness, collaboration, tolerance against diversity, fairness and equity.
The notion of violence within the notion of peace is defined differently in literature, but it can generally be expressed as physical or nonphysical, individual or social negative behaviors.Direct violence is composed of phenomena such as child and woman abuse and war; social violence is composed of actions that can be seen throughout the society such as social pressure and hunger; sociocultural violence is composed of actions such as racism and religious pressure; and ecological violence is composed of environmental factors that adversely affects human life such as environmental pollution (Castro & Galace, 2010).In this context, it can be stated that violence, similar to peace, has a multidimensional structure.
Peace education is based on the notion of peace and, included within this notion as a complement, the notion of violence.These two notions are adopted as the two building blocks of peace education.In basic education in Turkey, peace education or more precisely competences that are expected to be gained as a result of the application of peace education programs are emphasized partially or indirectly in Turkish, Life Sciences, Social Sciences and Religious Culture and Moral Knowledge courses, however according to Doğan and Kılınç (2014), peace education is not given sufficient place within the contents of these courses.
Peace education is defined in different ways in literature.Castro and Galace (2010) define peace education as an education that supports and transforms to a peace culture.Peace education has an important place for providing the knowledge, skills and attitudes to individuals that can be utilized in preventing the violence that is or will be present in individual or social context and in settling conflicts.There is scope for raising individuals that are away from violence, fair, and strongly sensitive to environmental and social issues and for ensuring social transformation as the power to maintain this in a systematic way.Haris and Morrison (2003) explain peace education with a philosophical approach and express it as a process that involves the acquisition of skills such as listening, reflecting, problem-solving, collaboration and dispute-settlement.It is possible to acquire peaceful attitudes and behaviors that will contribute to ending violence before it becomes a conflict, to possess a global citizenship consciousness as part of the sociocultural life, to develop the competence of reflective and participative thinking and further to these, to establish a sustainable peace environment (Brantmeier, 2007(Brantmeier, , 2013;;Harris, 2004;Readrson, 2000;Fountain, 1999).For all these to occur in reality, it is crucial to spread peace education throughout schools and include it in instruction programs.Replacing war with peace requires the notion of peace to have a place in every grade of education starting with preschool education and to become a part of life.
Students reflect their acquisition related to peace education provided to them in school programs to their daily lives in various ways.These reflections take various shapes depending on the age level of school-age children.Pictorial representations are considered as one of these reflections.Drawings provide an insight to children's inner worlds and make it possible to discuss their world of emotion and though from a broader perspective.Children's drawings serve as a window to their emotions and thoughts and they can freely reflect their dreams onto paper (Crook, 1985).The emotions of children toward people or objects can again be understood through drawings (Burkitt, 2004).
The process of drawing requires the child to select and arrange colors, shapes and lines through synthesizing several components such as content, style, format and composition in order to convey an emotion, a thought, an event or an observation (Malchiodi, 2005).Children hate to answer the questions they are asked directly.Children express their feelings through lines with greater ease, fun and speed (Lewis and Greene, 1983).For this reason, as drawings are considered as an indicator of how the child perceives external world, they help adults in communicating with the child and overcoming the difficulties that the child faces (Artut, 2002).Drawing can also enhance children's critical thinking and understanding abilities and provide students the opportunity to develop the necessary skills to interpret images and include them in individual discourse (Uysal, 2011).A method to better understand what the pictorial expressions of children mean is to listen to what they say about their drawings (Malchiodi, 2005).The reason is that children tend to draw "what they know" rather than "what they see" in their drawings (Toomela, 2006).Moreover, children may draw what they see even in early ages and attribute special meaning to these (Cox, 1992;Cox, 1993).In this context, the best way to understand the message in children's drawings is to talk to them about their drawings or images.
When the researches conducted are analyzed, it is seen that the researches where the notions of peace and violence are considered together are limited.It is observed that there are studies such as perceiving violence in child drawings (Yurtal & Artut, 2008;Farver & Garcia, 2015;Kandıra & diğerleri, 2012), emotional reflections of war (Jolley & Vulic-Prtoric, 2001), the notion of peace in drawings and comics (Köse & Bayır, 2014;Bulut & Sarı, 2015;Naci, 2015), drawing peace and war (Aktaş, 2015;Walker, Myers-Bowman, & Myers-Walls, 2003).The opposite of peace is always considered war.However the notion of direct violence is not much considered as the opposite of the notion of peace.In this study, the notions of peace and violence that form the basis for peace education are taken into consideration together and it is intended to provide a field for peace education.
In order to ensure social change and peace culture in societies, it is necessary to develop appropriate education programs that, in subjective basis, can meet the needs of the society in which the program will be implemented and then in later stages, contribute to the creation of a peace culture in universal level.For the development of programs needed be possible, it is required to study the perception and formation of the notions of "peace" and "war" in societies.Those listed above form the fundamental objective of this research.Subject to this fundamental objective, it was sought to find out how children perceive the notions of "peace" and "war" in their pictorial drawings and written and verbal expressions and the meanings that they attribute to each of these notions.

Research Design
The research is conducted using phenomenological design.In phenomenological pattern, it is sought to understand the perceptions or experiences of participants in relation to a phenomenon through their own explanations (Patton, 2002;Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005;Creswell, 2009).In analyzing child drawings with phenomenological pattern, it is emphasized to be open to various meanings, contexts formed by meanings and the world-view of the drawer (Malchiodi, 2005).In the research, the perception of students on peace and violence and students' drawings on peace and violence are studied in relation to their views on these drawings.

Application and Data Collection
Research data are collected through student drawings and interview with students on their drawings.Research data are collected in Toplukonut Primary School, Yenişehir, Diyarbakır.The research involves 68 students.37 of these students study in 5th grade and 31 study in 4th grade.The application of the research is carried out by the researcher.The researcher contacted related administrators and teachers in the school and obtained the necessary permission.Then, the researcher visited the classrooms, distributed drawing paper to students and asked the students to take out their colors and lead pencils.The students were asked to divide the drawing paper in two in the middle and draw what they understand when they hear the word "peace" on one side and the word "war" on the other side.The application lasted approximately one course hour that is 40 minutes.
After drawings were completed, the students were interviewed again in consequence of the analyses by the researcher and asked the question "what did you want to tell in this drawing of yours".The students were then asked to write answers that they give to the questions on the paper of their drawing with their own handwriting.The writings of the students were analyzed and interpreted by the researcher.Then, again on the basis of pictorial or written expressions, 14 students were interviewed face to face to avoid misinterpretation in some pictorial or written expressions.Students' families were asked for permission for these interviews.These interviews lasted approximately 3 to 5 minutes.All the interviews were recorded on a sound recorder.

Data Collection Atmosphere
Data collection of the research was conducted in the classroom of the students during Painting class in Toplukonut primary and secondary schools in Yenişehir Merkez in Diyarbakır.The classroom where the application was conducted had desks in three columns.When entering the room, there is a column of desks beside the wall and seven rows aligned back to back and right next to them, a second column aligned similarly and another column of desks beside the windows.The students were seated so that two students sit on one desk.The desks were organized independently for each student and possess the features that can meet individual requirements.Each classroom contains twenty one desks at total.These desks are comfortable enough for each two student groups.During the application, drawing papers were provided to the students by the researcher and lead and colored pencils were brought by the students themselves.The students were given one course hour (40 minutes) for the application and the application was conducted under the supervision of the researcher and painting teacher.

Data Analysis
From the data obtained from pictorial representations and written and verbal expressions of students, the pictorial representations and written expressions were analyzed through document analysis, and verbal explanations were analyzed through descriptive analysis method.In the data analysis stage, students' drawings and answers to the written and verbal questions were analyzed by the researcher and presented to domain experts in relation to which themes can be labeled as peace subtheme and which ones can be labeled as war subtheme.As a result of the analyses carried out, the themes that appear in students' pictorial representations and written and verbal expressions based on their pictorial representations were identified.The identification of these themes was based on the dimensions of the notions of peace and war identified by Castro and Galace (2010).Regarding the element of peace, 4 main themes were identified consisting of "Universal/intersocietal peace, intergroup/social peace, interpersonal peace and individual peace".Twenty five subthemes were formed under these 4 main themes.Regarding the element of violence, 4 main themes appeared consisting of "sociocultural violence, direct violence,

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In students sixteen sub  Attitudes and behaviors based on direct physical violence by a man, usually based on male domination, have an important place in the paintings.In addition to this, violence in the relations between men and women, and parental violence in the family, are other aspects of emphasized violence.Especially when domestic violence is expressed by students, it is seen that there are also perceptions about male domination.The father applies violence to the mother at home, and if his expectations are not met, he solves it directly through violence.In many cases, such as lack of food at home, untidiness of the home, child's mischief, women are exposed to violence and students clearly express this in their pictorial, literary and verbal expressions.Not so frequently, however, they have described emotional violence, extortion and threats as well as child abuse as violence.They see emotional violence as a pressure from their peers.Students who say that they meet with situations such as theft and extortion, which are very rare by their peers, also regard this as violence.Because they do not accept that peers get what they have except their will.Students who see child abuse as violence do not accept and oppose the children being begged by their parents or elders especially on the streets (Yurtal & Artut, 2008;Akbulut & Saban, 2015).
The crisis in Syria is affecting many countries of the world.One of the most influenced countries by this crisis is Turkey.Despite the fact that the lives-on streets or caps-of people who migrated from Syria did not directly reflect on the pictures drawn by children, it is supported by the themes of war and chaotic environment.Socio-culturally violence of the war, the destruction of the social order, the loss of much of what people have, the complete deterioration of the traditions they are supposed to have, and the existence of uncertainties about their future are described as chaotic environments.The students have no expectations for the future in this context.Again, It is thought that if the people in a society do not understand each other -in their pictorial, literary, and verbal expressions-the violence is going to dissipate socially; that is, it will cause both and result in people's death.Another interesting result is that violence in city centers will be punished within the rules of law, but the perception that it is not possible in rural areas has emerged in the students.This can be explained by the fact that traditional relationships are more common in rural areas and problems are solved by traditional understandings.Discrimination is considered another dimension of socio-cultural violence.In multicultural structures like Turkey, this carries a risk of conflict and violence.Students are emphasizing discrimination in their pictorial expressions, but they do not see it as religious, ethnic, gender-based and it can be said that they do, generally, not perceive discrimination.
Students' perceptions of peace and violence differ in their pictures, literary and verbal expressions.In the pictures of the students, peace is revealed as an imaginary image.Because when students draw peace, they have created and imagined an imaginary concept of peace in their minds.Very few illustrations show real life images.However, when it comes to the concept of violence, they are more realistic, under the influence of their daily lives, and picturing what they have experienced and seen around.On the other hand, it can be said while designing peace as an image or a dream, they perceived violence more realistic and concrete.This situation can be considered to be valid both in verbal and literary expressions.
As a result, it is seen that education is the base for increasing the peace, in the pictorial, literary and verbal expressions of the students and reducing the violence.Particularly, it is considered that the teaching of peace training directly or indirectly within the curricula will increase their problem solving skills.It is thought that peace education will contribute to the education of individuals who would prefer to engage in dialogue in problem solving, develop empathy skills, and refuse all forms of violence.