Possibilities and Limitations of the Application of Academic Tutoring in Poland

In the face of mass education, the need to seek individualized methods of students’ teaching-learning is increasing. That causes academic tutoring to become more and more popular in higher education all over the world. The article presents the theoretical background of tutoring, the results of research in that regard and the benefits of its practical application. Furthermore, the reality of higher education in Poland is presented here: the context and basic problems constituting the background for possibilities and limitations of application of academic tutoring in Polish conditions. The last part of the article includes examples of application of tutoring at Polish universities. Besides, some areas are indicated in which the use of tutoring may still be considered if the economic, social and cultural conditions in Poland are taken into account.


Introduction
Academic tutoring is more and more often applied in higher education all over the world (Ching & Chang-Chen, 2010;Flores, Simão, & Carrasco, 2012), which results, among others, from seeking university teaching methods alternative to mass education.Tutoring at universities can be used in various forms (e.g., peer tutoring, developmental tutoring) and areas (research, support for gifted students or assistance for students who experience learning difficulties) (Colvin, 2007;Falchikov, 2001;Flores et al., 2012;Topping, 1998).New forms of tutoring, e.g., e-tutoring, are also developing (Burnnet, 2003).
The fundament of academic tutoring is the master-student relation, which not only promotes the student's development in the scientific aspect but also in the personal and social one.Students prepare written works which they then read out and discuss with the tutor.The tutor is a partner and participant in the discussion and does not impose his or her own views on the student.Students have the opportunity to express and defend their opinions and ask critical questions (Tapper & Palfreyman, 2000).Tutoring develops the ability of self-study, time management and the pace of learning.It requires of students responsibility for their own learning, actions taken and their consequences (Alakija, 2005).
Academic tutoring has strong theoretical background, which allows for the description, understanding and forecasting of the processes and problems occurring in it, which is particularly important for the research taken and educational practice.Positive and multi-aspect implications of the use of tutoring in higher education systems of many countries (e.g., Portugal, Spain, Germany, Israel or Great Britain) justify the need to introduce tutoring into Polish universities to a greater extent than before.The object of analysis in the article is the theoretical background of tutoring, the results of research in that regard and the benefits of its application.The reality of higher education in Poland is presented: the context and basic problems as well as possibilities and limitations of application of academic tutoring in Polish conditions.Besides, examples of application of tutoring at Polish universities are shown and some areas in which the use of tutoring may be considered if the economic, social and cultural conditions in Poland are taken into account.

Theoretical Background
The theoretical background of tutoring is based on early cognitive development theories, cooperative learning theories, the talent development conception of excellence as well as theories relating to personal and professional development.Cognitive development theories and cooperative learning theories help to understand the process and problems of tutoring, the talent development conception of excellence points out its determinants connected with the university, and the theories relating to personal and professional development describe and explain benefits for individuals who participate in it.

Cognitive Development Theories
One of the goals in higher education is the development of students' cognitive abilities.The basic assumptions in cognitive development, adopted by Piaget many years ago, are still valid and very useful.Piaget (1971) determined the cognitive developmental stages of a human occurring one after the other.He found that the pace of transition from one stage to another is different in different people, and progress in particular stages depends on many determinants such as maturation, experience and social environmental factors.He emphasized the importance of cognitive conflict for constructing one's own knowledge but also the significance of individuals' cooperation for their cognitive development.
The importance of social factors in cognitive development was also stressed by Vygotsky (1978).His theory is based on the assumption that the full cognitive development of individuals requires social interaction, mutual influence, and individuals' cooperation aimed at learning, understanding and problem solving is of primary importance for constructing knowledge and translating shared views into internal intellectual activities.Vygotsky explained that the scope of one's cognitive abilities developed 'under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers' surpassed the development accomplished 'by individual problem solving'.
There is a substantial relation between Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories.Both of them present the opinion that cooperation with teachers and more talented peers is of key importance for cognitive development, particularly the development of critical thinking, objectivism and discursive reflection.Cooperation and mutual respect are fundamental for the relation between tutor and students.Involving in a discussion with students, exchanging arguments, providing assistance in the case of cognitive conflict and helping students to achieve cognitive equilibrium and construct their own knowledge, the tutor facilitates and accelerates the development of their intellectual potential.

Cooperative Learning Theories
Theoretical background of tutoring is derived from cooperative learning theories whose sources can be found in the theory of social interdependence, originally developed by Deutsch (1949).In the 1980s and later, Johnson & Johnson (1989, 2005, 2009) presented an extended and generalized form of the theory of social interdependence.They assumed that "social interdependence exists when the outcomes of individuals are affected by each other's actions".They pointed out "two types of social interdependence: positive, when the actions of individuals promote the achievement of joint goals, and negative, when the actions of individuals obstruct the achievement of each other's goals".That theory assumes that individuals' cooperation in accomplishing goals is based on their internal motivation, driven by interactions directed at encouragement and mutual facilitation of the learning effort (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1998).The authors of the concept indicated five elements which are critical to actual cooperation: "positive interdependence, individual accountability, promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing".
Academic tutoring has important connections with the theory of cooperative learning.The source of activities taken by the tutor and tutee together is internal motivation directed at students' cognitive and extra-cognitive development.Positive interdependence between the tutor and students creates the need for mutual help, the sense of commitment in executing the tasks, and responsibility for their execution.

Talent Development Conception of Excellence
Cognitive development and cooperative learning theories help to understand the course of the tutoring process.Astin's (1999) talent development conception of excellence, in turn, stresses the significance of the process determinants lying in "the institution's ability to affect its students' intellectual development favorably".In that conception, excellence is determined by teachers' ability to develop students' talents and the university's capability to provide the proper conditions for that.
The connection between tutoring and the talent development conception of excellence seems indisputable.That theory, but also the practice of tutoring, confirm the special importance of tutors' professional and pedagogical skills, their responsibility and engagement in work with younger colleagues aimed at the development of their potential.External conditions of the execution of tutoring, mainly the organizational and material ones, are no less significant, as they can facilitate tutors' work or make it harder.

Personal Development Theories
The theoretical background of tutoring can also be found in personal development theories, which indirectly indicate what can be achieved through tutoring, what benefits individuals have from experiential learning (Rogers, 1969), the deep approach in learning (Entwistle, 1997;Marton & Säljö, 1997), what assistance they can get from the tutor in their personal, ethical development (Perry, 1981), in developing self-regulatory processes in learning (Zimmerman, 2001(Zimmerman, , 2002) ) and to what extent the participation in tutoring supports individuals in the process of self-actualization (Maslow, 1954).Rogers (1969) was of the opinion that learning must be experienced by the individual personally, because then it leads to personal changes and development.He determined the conditions facilitating individual's experiential learning: full participation in learning, control of its essence and orientation, direct confrontation with research, social and personal problems and self-evaluation.Hence, the sources of full, personal involvement in learning, required in tutoring, can be found in Roger's conception.Student's participation in tutoring is an opportunity to learn by experience, to discover oneself and one's capabilities.The conditions facilitating experiential learning, pointed out by the author, are ensured by tutors and constitute specific principles of work with students during the tutorial.
The benefits resulting from the deep learning approach, especially significant in tutoring, are presented in the deep, surface and strategic learning theory (Entwistle, 1997;Marton & Säljö, 1997).Deep learning approach is characteristic of individuals oriented at understanding, making changes in their knowledge and skills and engaged in connecting new material with already possessed cognitive structures.Participation in tutoring is a chance for development for students who apply the deep learning approach and are highly motivated to study.Direct contact with the knowledge, skills and experience of the tutor, as well as their influence, assistance and support, inspire and direct students to develop their cognitive, but also personal, potential.
Perry (1970) proved that cognitive and personal development of college students results from the accomplishment of 9 predictable, successive levels (positions) from dualistic thinking to relativistic thinking, which he presented in several broader categories: dualism, multiplicity, relativism and commitment in relativism.In the course of thinking development, learners move from perceiving the truth in absolute terms of "Good" and "Evil" (imparted by "good" or "evil" authorities) to discerning complex versions of "truth" which conflict with one another and present justified alternatives.Perry observed that not all students went on to higher levels.That is why teachers' challenge is to help students at each stage to move to higher levels.
A good tutor has diagnostic skills: they can estimate their students' potential, the level of thinking development, strengths and weaknesses, and they are able to cooperate with the students in planning adequate activities aimed at their development in that regard.Subjective interpersonal relations between the tutor and the tutee, based on trust and mutual respect, create the student's responsibility for the execution of the set tasks.The tutor's task is to help students develop their critical thinking-the ability to present, analyze and defend their arguments, construct rational grounds for their convictions, self-control their thinking in order to evaluate it and develop respect for other views and assessments.
Students' participation in tutoring and direct relations with the tutor help them develop self-regulation of learning.The theories of self-regulation of learning are based on the assumption that students can improve their learning ability by using selected metacognitive and motivational strategies (Zimmerman, 2001).It is also emphasized that deliberate practice-individualized management of activity, especially designed by the teacher to improve some aspects of an individual's performance through repetition and successive refinement-is of special importance for the development of self-regulation processes (Ericsson, 1997(Ericsson, , 2002)).Involvement in such activities on the part of the tutor is very beneficial for the tutee, as it helps the learners generate their own feedback, enables them to monitor their performance and develops skills necessary for further, autonomous performance monitoring.
Moreover, active participation in tutoring on the part of the students supports their pursuit of self-actualization, the development of their capabilities.A. H. Maslow (1954) explained that human motives have the form of a pyramid, with biological and physiological motives at its base.Maslow places above them the activities aimed at the sense of safety, followed by social and psychological motives of love and belonging, respect, esteem and success.On the top of the pyramid are the motives oriented at self-actualization.Maslow claims that motives are arranged in a kind of hierarchy and an individual must first accomplish the lower level to be able to move towards the higher one; he admits, however, that many people do not achieve the level of self-actualization.Tutoring strengthens the system of establishment and development of young elites.Students' participation in tutoring is their own choice and responsibility.Solid work with the tutor ensures particular students their esteem and respect for the accomplished effects and effort made.Besides, activities taken by students under the tutor's guidance promote their pursuit of self-actualization.
The performed analyses show that academic tutoring has solid theoretical background, which is of key importance for the conducted studies and practice.Analysis of the results of studies on the effectiveness of tutoring in higher education shows that its application gives students many benefits: it strengthens motivation for learning and causes an increase of academic accomplishments (Falchikov, 2001;Jarvis, 2002;Johnson & Johnson, 2009), leads to an increase of students' subjectivity and autonomy (Bain, 2010), promotes metareflection on the learning process, develops high-level cognitive skills (Zimmermann, 2002(Zimmermann, , 2008)), and facilitates the transition from factual knowledge (know what) to knowledge with a practical application (know why, know how) (Shaw, Carey, & Mair, 2008).Research results also indicate some benefits for the tutors-the source of improvement and professional satisfaction (Falchikov, 2001;Gregory, 2002), self-reflection on their own actions (Bell & Mladenovic, 2008;Bell, Mladenovic, & Segara, 2010), and even social ones.
Students' participation in tutoring allows for the development of talents and the ability of creative and innovative thinking, thus creating leaders of social change, and this is the kind of workforce the society needs.The above-mentioned arguments justify the need to introduce tutoring to the higher education system, which already exists in many countries in Europe and beyond (Ching & Chang-Chen, 2010;Flores et al., 2012).Yet, the effective use of tutoring in higher education depends on many factors.Further in the study, the possibilities and limitations of its application in the higher education system in Poland are presented.

The Context and Main Characteristics of Higher Education in Poland
Like most countries of the European Union, Poland signed the Bologna Declaration of 1999, whose implementation initiated many transformations in the functioning of higher education system in Europe.The three-cycle study system was introduced: first cycle (bachelor's), second cycle (master's) and third cycle (doctorate) studies, a system of comparable diplomas and credit-based evaluation of students' performance (ECTS).Signing the Bologna Declaration resulted in the development and implementation of the Polish Qualifications Framework in Higher Education with consideration of the evaluation and recommendations of the European Union.
The Polish higher education system and the fundaments of its functioning are determined in detail in the Act of 27 July 2005, Law on Higher Education, amended on 18 March 2011.The amendment of the act brought many legislative changes both in the area of management and organization of university work and in the functioning of academic staff.Rector's authority was extended and new forms of supervision and parametrization of different aspects of university's activity were introduced.Improving the quality of teaching-better preparation of Polish students to dynamically changing economic conditions and the requirements of labour markets-has become the priority.
The functioning of Polish higher education system is also determined by the number and quality of students and academic staff.The number of students in Poland was constantly growing from the year 1990 to 2005, but later the population of young people of college age began to decrease (see Table 1).Nevertheless, higher education in Poland, which used to be elite (only available for a small percentage of the population), has transformed into a mass system, just like in many other countries (e.g., Canada, France, New Zealand, Great Britain, Ireland or Australia) (Keane, 2011;Scott, 1995;Shah, Lewis, & Fitzgerald, 2011).The increase in the number of university teachers was not as quick as the increase in the number of students.In accordance with data of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2013), in 2011 in Poland there were 15.6 students per one university teacher; that corresponded to the mean for OECD countries, which was exactly the same.The ratio of the number of students to the number of university teachers in Poland varies between university types; in 2011, the lowest number of students per teacher could be found at medical universities (6) and academies of art (4.2) (OECD, 2013).
Teaching the growing number of students also necessitates the assigning of appropriate funds.Since 2005, the participation of expenditure for higher education in the Gross Domestic Product has been decreasing: from 0.99% in 2005 to as little as 0.67% in 2010 (Central Statistical Office, 2012, p. 338).That results in universities having to look for alternative sources of funding (especially private ones) and engage in commercial activities, which may be detrimental to the quality of performing their basic functions and tasks (Krajewska, 2004, p. 65).

Possibilities and Limitations of Application of Tutoring at Polish Universities
The above-mentioned conditions of Polish higher education system functioning greatly affect the implementation and execution of tutoring at Polish universities.Interestingly, as Table 2 shows, each factor may either facilitate the practical application of academic tutoring or make it harder. Relatively high hierarchization and rigidity of the organizational structure of Polish higher education system, which makes the application of tutoring at universities more difficult.
 The complicated procedure of verification of the expected education effects does not promote the tutor-student relation, which should be flexible, adapted to students' individual needs and capabilities.

The number and quality of students and academic teachers
 Demographic low causes a decrease of the number of students, which creates an opportunity to use tutoring at universities to a greater extent.
 Demographic low leads to the concentration of education in big and relatively strong centres, but also forces them to improve the quality of educational services offered; tutoring may be one of the proposals encouraging candidates to study at those centres. Mass availability of higher education-big lecture and seminar groups cause the atmosphere of anonymity and depersonalization of the teaching process and the disappearance of the traditional master-learner relation.
 Pragmatism and instrumentalization of academic knowledge-students care more about obtaining the diploma than about the involvement in studying, acquiring knowledge and comprehensive development of personality. of tutoring increases the chance of educating leaders in those sciences.
 More and more contest laureates are accepted to universities (e.g., at the Warsaw School of Economics, 90 contest laureates were studying in the year 2012/2013) (MSHE, 2013, p. 23).
Working with a tutor may develop their talents and strengthen their creativity and engagement in the study process.
 Insufficient knowledge of students and university teachers on tutoring.
 Insufficient pedagogical training of university teachers-only few higher education institutions in Poland (e.g., Warsaw School of Economics) offer university teachers the opportunity to raise their teaching qualifications.Building university teacher's authority rather on power resulting from the position than on competence, respect and trust, which is crucial in tutoring.
 Teaching skills are underestimated in the professional development of university teachers, which may discourage them from tutoring.

Funding
 The possibility of using European Union funding-some Polish universities (e.g., Janusz Korczak Pedagogical University in Warsaw) introduce the tutoring system using those funds.
 Lack of possibility of funding small group classes.
As the table proves, implementation of tutoring at Polish universities is difficult due to a number of barriers and problems, just like in other countries in Europe and all over the world (Carnell & Lodge, 2002).Still, the effort to use the possibilities favourable for academic tutoring is worthwhile because of its significance for multilateral development of students' personalities and their functioning not only at the university but also in the society.At some Polish universities such initiatives/activities have already been taken.

Examples of Application of Tutoring in Polish Higher Education
Academic tutoring is used at few Polish universities; it is recognized as elite and usually offered to ambitious and able students.Below the most well-known examples of application of tutoring at Polish higher education institutions are presented.Each MISH student has an individualized program of study: they establish their study courses in cooperation with the tutor for each year or semester considering their research interests and minimum curricula of the faculties where they want to study.The choice of the tutor and working under their guidance is one of the basic principles of MISH (beside the completion of the plan).The students choose their tutors from the list of tutors recommended by the College.

Interfaculty
Studying at MISH is becoming more and more popular.At the beginning of the College (1992/1993), only 39 students chose it, whereas in the academic year 2012/2013, the number was 621.It indicates the growing need among Polish students for active education through reflection, dialogue, experience and action, supporting self-development, self-creation, perfecting one's personality and developing virtues.

Janusz Korczak Pedagogical University in Warsaw-
The "Modern University Teacher-Tutor and Coach" project (See: http://www.tic.wsptwp.eu) In the years 2009-2012, the "Modern University Teacher-Tutor and Coach" project was executed at Janusz Korczak Pedagogical University in Warsaw.Its purpose was to improve the quality of education and implement modern teaching methods by means of developing an innovative Academic Tutoring System (STA).As part of the project, training sessions for lecturers were organized, concerning creativity, talent management, tutoring and coaching in the work with students as well as introduction of talent development system at the university.There were also internships and study visits at Polish and foreign centres which apply tutoring in the process of teaching students.Tutorials for students were executed within the framework of several subjects.Besides, course books and brochures on tutoring for teachers and students were published as part of the project.In the year 2010/2011, 93 students participated in tutorials, and within the whole execution period, 300 students were involved.

University of Lower Silesia in Wrocław-
The "Tutor" Programme (See: http://www.dsw.edu.pl) Since October 2013, an innovative system of tutoring as a form of assistance for students has been introduced at University of Lower Silesia in Wrocław.The programme covered 1st year students: nearly 2,000 people between the age of 19 and 40.Apart from assistance activities, consultancy and developmental activities were also included.Each student group has a tutor who cares for their needs, supports the process of studying and reacts to problem situations.The tutor's tasks include, e.g., providing information on the study process, procedures and expectations of the university, supporting the development of the ability to learn in accordance with university requirements and scientific development, indicating other university and external sources of information and support, and establishing relations with University of Lower Silesia.
The presented examples of academic tutoring application at Polish universities show that it is used in various forms and in different areas.However, against the background of Polish higher education system, this experience is marginal, covering a low number of students and teachers (mainly at liberal arts faculties), and often executed out of the curriculum.

Other Application Areas of Tutoring in Polish Higher Education Practice
There are some possibilities of applying tutoring in the teaching practice at Polish universities in more varied forms, with consideration of the specificity of economic, social and cultural conditions.

Bachelor's and Master's Seminars
In Poland they are conducted by the thesis supervisor (research supervisor), usually in groups of 10 students.Their aim is for each student to prepare the thesis under the supervisor's guidance.Students develop the theoretical background of their own research and its conception, carry out empirical studies and prepare reports from the research.
The use of tutoring in the course of seminars not only enables teachers to get to know the students better, find out about their interests, cognitive and developmental capabilities and inspire them to critical thinking and argumentation for the needs of preparing the work concluding 1st or 2nd cycle degree programmes, but can also provide the basis for third cycle studies.

Student Scientific Associations
Scientific associations are organizations for students who want to develop their scientific interests and passions out of the curriculum.Work at associations takes place under the guidance of a supervisor-a university teacher who supports the students' scientific development.Thanks to tutoring, students involved in scientific associations might use their research potential more fully.

Student Traineeships
Students complete traineeships at different stages of the education cycle under the guidance of an experienced practitioner-traineeship supervisor.The purpose of the traineeships is to introduce students to the future job and to help them use in practice their knowledge, skills and social competencies acquired during the study.The use of tutoring as part of traineeships will allow students to acquire new experience and professional knowledge not only when doing the activities but also from the supervisor.The exchange of experiences will cause better mutual understanding and strengthen the students' initiative and motivation to take up activities and responsibility for the course of traineeships.

Conclusion and Suggestions
The arguments presented in this study prove that academic tutoring is a valuable method of students' teaching-learning but still not very popular in the Polish system of higher education.Therefore, there is a need to organize training sessions for university teachers and students concerning the essence, forms and possibilities of applying tutoring in higher education.Furthermore, it is necessary to develop a system of rewards for university teachers who use tutoring and to take tutoring into consideration in the parametric evaluation of the university and its academic staff.These proposals are in compliance with recommendations of the High Level Group on the Modernisation of Higher Education (2013) regarding the improvement of teaching and learning quality in European higher education.
The introduction of tutoring at universities is a complex and time-consuming process which requires not only thorough planning, organization and control but also substantial financial expenditure.In the context of mass, marketized university-level knowledge in Poland, it is a difficult but feasible task.Therefore, more tutoring attempts at Polish universities are necessary.They must also be analyzed and evaluated, which will allow for more precise determination of effectiveness and usefulness of the method in Polish conditions.


Relatively few students in Poland study at medical, artistic, mathematical or physical faculties (Ministry of Science and Higher Education [MSHE], 2013; OECD, 2013); the use  Demographic low results in minimum selection of university candidates.It is hard to choose students interested in participation in tutoring among them.

Table 1 .
Students of higher education institutions in Poland as of 1990/1991 to 2011/2012 (adapted from Central Statistical Office in Poland 1990-2012)

Table 2 .
Possibilities and limitations of academic tutoring in higher education in Poland College of Individual Studies in the Humanities of Warsaw University (MISH), Coordinated byArtes Liberales Faculty of Warsaw University (See: http://www.mish.uw.edu.pl)It was established in 1992 at University of Warsaw on the initiative of prof.Jerzy Axer.Those studies are designed for people characterized by independent thinking, perseverance in learning, readiness to accept responsibility for their own learning and its effects.Students are recruited to the College on the basis of maturity exam results and an additional entrance exam (predisposition test).The MISH model is currently offered by the leading Polish universities, e.g., Jagiellonian University, Catholic University of Lublin or Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań.