Land Management for Sustainable Agriculture Under Climate Change in the Congo-Basin Countries of Central Africa

Degradation of ecosystem services is evident in the Congo-Basin Countries of Central Africa. This paper examines land management for sustainable agriculture in the context of environmental change and climatic stress. The interaction between drivers of change, institutional arrangements and the actions of stakeholders are discussed to highlight local, regional and global benefits of sustainable agricultural land management. The paper notes that tenure security has to be at the heart of any agricultural development plans, and managing agricultural land in the context of environmental change and climate stress requires that land managers ensure the long-term productive potential. It is recommended that land-based entrepreneurs adopt land use systems which enable them to maximize the economic and social benefits from land while enhancing the ecological support functions of land resources. The paper concludes that land policy reforms which aim to promote sustainable land management should address issues related to land rights and institutions driven by inefficient and inequitable historical legacies, including access to land by women, indigenous groups; as well the inefficiencies and inequities that arise from poor legal and administrative systems.

The Congo Basin, acknowledged as the second largest tropical rainforest on earth and the lungs of Africa, has a rich and diverse ecosystem which provides food, fresh water, shelter and medicine for tens of millions of people, as well as home to some critically endangered species.Its rivers, swamps, trees and savannahs significantly contribute to sustain life across the whole planet, playing a critical role in regulating the global climate for the benefit of the entire biosphere.Agriculture is the economic foundation of the Central African countries within the Congo Basin, employing about 60 percent of the workforce and contributing an average of 30 percent of gross domestic product.However, agricultural growth rates have stagnated and food insecurity remains a concern, with malnourishment significant in some countries (Bush, 2010).With the exception of few countries such as Gabon and Equatorial Guinea that rely on oil to drive their economies, the predominant livelihood activity in the subregion is smallholder semi-subsistence farming.Households rely on cash and subsistence incomes from a number of sources that include rainfed cultivation, livestock production and non-timber forest exploitation.The agricultural activities are affected not only by unfavourable climatic conditions, poor markets and infrastructure services, but also by unfavourable physical conditions (poor soils, land degradation caused by cultivation on sloping land, deforestation) (Aklilu & de Graaff, 2007).Some thousands of hectares of land is used for crop production in Central Africa, millions hectares more of potentially arable land competes with other land uses for infrastructure and human settlement along with land set aside for, e.g.forest ecosystems in natural reserves.Figure 1 shows the dominant ecosystem classes and agricultural production potentials across Africa.We note for Central Africa sub-region the domination of forest, woodland and grassland particularly suitable for rainfed production of various crops (e.g.food, fibre, fodder crops and pasture grasses) under different input and management techniques.Compared to other regions in Africa, Central Africa's intensive cropland is largely across Cameroon, Central African Republic and Burundi, with unused potential in the other countries in the sub-region.Millions of hectares of land in the sub-region has  Figure 2 shows the agricultural area relative to the total national land area for selected countries in the region from 1965 to 2009.For Chad more than 35% of country land area is utilized as agricultural land, and almost 30% for the Republic of Congo, 20% for Gabon and more than 15% for Cameroon.This agricultural land is likely to expand in order to satisfy the needs of the rapidly growing population.Such expansion for food and raw material needs may transform the natural ecosystem of the region, particularly the Congo Basin which is of global significance in its climate change mitigation potentials.Combining the information emanating from figures 1 and 2 and table 2, we may conclude that the way land resource is used in the subregion could be decisive for future social and economic well-being as well as for the sustained quality of land resources in Central Africa.Therefore, if more production is required from the existing land resource while cultivable areas are being shifted towards non-agricultural uses, land policy and land administration must play important roles in land use dynamics through suitable institutional mechanisms, scientific management, conservation and development of land resources.Conservation and development of land resources are important processes that determine the value and total economic importance of African land.Whether it is the scramble for African land or the intensification of agriculture, the over-exploitation of soil resources and the expansion into marginal lands has led to soil fertility depletion (Pasquini & Alexander, 2005).Fertility depletion is common in North Cameroon and Chad, whilst the 'land grab' is significant in Southern Cameroon and the Democratic Republic of Congo.The limited adoption of fertilizer replenishment strategies and soil and water conservation measures and decline in the use and length of fallow periods is impacting negatively on their agricultural production (Aklilu & de Graaff, 2007;Scoones et al., 1996).Land grab means that prime agricultural land carved out deprives the community land resources (Deininger, 2011).In addition to this challenge, for smallholder farmers, the prevailing global financial crisis and low farm returns has meant a decline in farm input investment, including fertilizers, seeds, and technology adoption against soil degradation.This has significant impact on agriculture and poverty reduction (Griffin et al., 2002).For the poorest people, GDP growth originating in agriculture is more effective in raising incomes of extremely poor people than GDP growth originating outside the sector.Therefore, the land question in relation to access and management is an important problem to resolve if these countries and their rural peasantry are to emerge from economic and social crisis.
Tenure security which has to be at the heart of any agricultural development plans, is achieved when property rights are clarified and widely acknowledged (Andersson, 2007).In most cases, progress will consist of (a) the reconciliation of diverse and conflicting claims, (b) the clarification of latent or overlapping rights in resources, and (c) the reconciliation of statutory and customary regimes.The question of considering customary rights in sustainable land management has been identified in almost all the countries in Central Africa.Currently, customary land tenure is not adequately recognized in the majority of Central African countries.However, in reality most people in the region occupy their land under a customary system.This means absence of formal tenure rights and consequently insecurity of land tenure.Concerns about population growth and pressure on land in urban areas and coastal zones have been raised in countries like Cameroon, Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea (Gilland, 2002;Pender, 1998).Forced evictions, expropriations and related land issues are also critical issues in Central Africa.Pender et al. (2006) and Andersson (2007) have shown that property rights and secure access to and control over land and natural resources can generate critical incentives for conservation and sustainable use, management, and governance of natural resources.Insecure, unclear, limited or short-term property rights can inhibit sustainable land and natural resource management and discourage stakeholders from acting as long-term stewards of land and natural resources (Adesina & Baidu-Forson, 1995).Property rights affect outcomes such as agricultural productivity, household income, and land degradation (Mbaga-Semgalawe & Folmer, 2000).This is captured in Figure 3 which shows how agricultural production and land conditions are affected by land management practices, including both private decisions made by farm households and collective decisions made by groups of farmers and communities.Pender et al. (2006) notes that farm households may make decisions about land use (e.g.grazing land), the crop types to plant, the amount of labor to use, and the types and amounts of inputs, investments, and agronomic practices to use to conserve soil and water, improve soil fertility or reduce pest losses.Communities also can influence land management through their collective decisions.They may make investments on communal land areas (e.g.erosion controls on degraded lands, tree planting) or private lands (e.g.drainage investments as part of watershed conservation and development efforts) or regulate use of communal land (e.g.restrictions on use of grazing areas) or private lands (e.g.bylaws limiting burning or cutting of trees).Agricultural income strategies and land management decisions are affected by these different factors operating at different scales (Pender, 1998;Pagiola, 1996).Local institutions also have important influences on income strategies and land management.In much of Central Africa, customary land tenure institutions determine what land use rights and land management obligations farmers have, how secure those rights are, whether those rights may be transferred or used as collateral, how conflicts are resolved, and other questions.Such institutions can have substantial effects on land management by regulating land use.The fragility of its ecology means that the region faces significant challenges from climate variability and change.Rainfall variability experienced in sub-Saharan Africa already has detrimental impacts on crop production and agriculture as a whole (Schlenker & Lobell, 2010).Indeed, too much or too little water due to erratic rainfall and insufficient storage capacity wields adverse impacts on food security (Schmidhuber & Tubiello 2007;Jones, 2003).Already, some farmers are experiencing more frequent and intense storms that cause erosion, rainwater run-off, and crop damage, while others experience more frequent droughts.At the same time rainfall patterns are becoming more variable with delayed onset and length of the rainy season, and in some cases, drought.These unpredictable patterns make it difficult for farmers to plan and manage their crops (Schmidhuber & Tubiello, 2007).All these impact the total economic value of land.

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Future climate change is widely predicted to impact on rainfall variability in sub-Saharan Africa, with the effect of increasing droughts and floods (Müller et al., 2011).Even using optimistic lower-end projections of temperature rise, climate change may reduce crop yields by 8-20 percent by the 2050s, with more severe losses in some regions (Schlenker & Lobell 2010;Schmidhuber & Tubiello, 2007).Warmer temperatures, more variable rainfall, and higher incidence of extreme events all magnify stresses on the farming systems.Increasing frequencies of heat stress, drought and flood events, will result in yet further deleterious effects on productivity and wellbeing (Patt et al., 2010).It is likely that price and yield volatility will continue to rise as extreme weather continues.In fact, world food prices for some of the main grain crops are likely to rise sharply half of the 21st century, unlike the price declines witnessed in the 20th century (Rosegrant et al., 2001).This will have serious consequences on food security.Climate change will also impact on agriculture through effects on pests and disease.These interactions are complex and as yet the full implications in terms of productivity are uncertain.It is therefore essential for policy planners to find ways to cope with existing climate stressors, as well as other effects of future climate change.African producers have already developed a number of indigenous coping mechanisms to support survival in the face of climate variability.However, global climate change increases the risks that African farmers must efficiently manage, and policy makers must respond with the appropriate measures to facilitate adaptation required to uphold the value of land.
Fortunately, there are a range of land-based management practices and technologies that can be applied on-farm to increase agricultural resilience to climate stress.However, property rights and secure access to and control over land and natural resources can generate critical incentives for conservation and sustainable use, management, and governance of natural resources (Lapar et al., 1999;DFID, 1999).Insecure, unclear, limited or short-term property rights can thus inhibit sustainable land and natural resource management and discourage stakeholders from acting as long-term stewards of land and natural resources.Land tenure challenges are age-old and climate change simply exacerbates the situation.The uncertainty of future climate variability and change requires greater flexibility in all land-based production systems.Given the central role of user rights in those systems, land and resource tenure will likewise require greater flexibility, thus raising a critical policy matter for many countries to maintain flexibility in customary and statutory tenure systems.Tenure security will be a critical factor in providing the incentives for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to climate change (Howden et al., 2007).Because climate-induced migrations (as already seen in northern Chad and northern Cameroon) could lead to social tensions, climate change will challenge institutions responsible for the governance of natural resources such as land to establish inclusive processes to negotiate claims, regulate disputes, and establish new tenure systems.
Effective response to the challenges of climate variability and change will require an ecosystem approach, working at the landscape level to increase productivity, enhance resilience to changing temperatures and rainfall patterns, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change.This means significant changes in agricultural practice in coming years, promoting and adopting ecological practices that can provide "no regrets" insurance against climate change, e.g.mulching of crops to allow more rain to soak into the soil, slow down how quickly that soil moisture evaporates, and reduce the erosion of soil into streams.Some other measures include intercropping to take advantage of different plants having different patterns of root growth and different needs for nutrients, less tillage of soil to boost fertility and health of soil over time while also reducing wind and water erosion of soil because it is less exposed, agroforestry of mixed food crops and trees for provisioning and environmental services including managing micro-climates and water management both in streams and on fields.These measures require secure unfettered access to land.
In semi arid zones such as in Northern Chad and other already degraded ecosystems such as through slash-and-burn agriculture in Southern Cameroon and Burundi, a range of well-established restoration and management options can improve human livelihoods, repair ecosystems, and increase the resilience of both people and landscapes to climate change.This will include the following at the farm-scale: soil and nutrient management (e.g. through conservation agriculture, improved application of fertilizers, and increasing fertility by integrating strain land uses may also affect household welfare as more people have to share the outcome of a constant land area which is also affected by land degradation (Gilland, 2002;Pender, 1998).Holden et al. (2006) posit that this may lead to a Malthusian development path, and the ensuing poverty-environment trap can only be broken through availability of new technologies, improved access to markets, and better investment opportunities which all require unfettered access to prime productive land.

Policy Safeguards for Sustainable of Agricultural Land Capital Management
While the specific challenges to land capital management across countries in the central African sub-region are diverse, however, common among them is the concern about environmental sustainability and the need for successful land management interventions being increasingly recognized in national development plans and poverty reduction strategies.Translating this recognition into effective policies or programmes in the face of climate change is the Achilles heel to sustainable land management in the sub-region.Any policy to address land capital management for sustainable agriculture in the context of environmental change must capture three key principles, which include: (1) integrated use of natural resources at ecosystem and farming systems levels; (2) multilevel and multi-stakeholder involvement; and (3) targeted policy and institutional support including development of incentive mechanisms for land-user-driven and participatory approaches in sustainable land management and adoption at the local level.
Land policy reforms which aim to promote sustainable land management should address issues related to land rights and institutions driven by inefficient and inequitable historical legacies, including access to land by women, poor people, indigenous groups; as well the inefficiencies and inequities that arise from poor legal and administrative systems.This must also take cognizance of old and new challenges that arise in the context of increasing scarcity of land; and the increasing competition for their use from urbanization, environmental services and biofuels.Addressing the inequities, particularly related to gender is important for sustainable land management, not only because women are significant crop producers in the sub-region, but also that there are both economic and social benefits when women have secure access to valuable land.Hence, institutions for sustainable land management must take the gender question serious.Property rights in land -whether customary, formal, or religious -provide economic access to key markets and social access to non-market institutions such as household and community-level governance structures (Adesina & Baidu-Forson, 1995).Secure land rights confer direct economic benefits because land: (1) is a key input into agricultural production and enterprise development; (2) can be used as a source of income from rental or sale; (3) can provide collateral for credit where strong, well-regulated land markets exist; and (4) can increase the capacity to invest in coping mechanisms and adaptation practices to secure livelihoods.Without secure land rights, women are less able to take advantage of changes that may result from stresses such as climate change.Women may not fully reap these benefits if they do not have legal and socially-recognized rights to individually-or jointly-held land (Stockbridge, 2007).This therefore calls for proactive land policy and better functioning land administration.An effective land administration will correct imbalances by safeguarding active land markets, speeding the issuance of land titles, and accelerating plot surveys, implement land resettlement for displaced communities e.g. from large-scale land grabbing.These may not only lead to tenure security but also improve the efficiency of land management (Basu, 1996).In other words, reliable institutions are needed to promote timely adjudication and land registration, strengthening land administration institutions and organizing the national land register (Atwood, 1990).
Land policy should not only be limited to addressing inaccessibility to land or landlessness.Attention should be given to the need to increase productivity per unit of land through better land utilization (Migot-Adholla et al., 1991).Better land utilization will require increased investment in agriculture, from both public and private sectors (Shiva, 2008).These investments are sustainable if they land-user driven at the local level.Farmers will therefore require incentives to invest in land improvements, drainage and irrigation, which are provided by increasingly secure ownership rights.To provide these rights and incentives, policy must encourage communal right systems which allocate inheritable usufruct rights, first to homesteads and nearby fields, then to the right to resume fallowed land, and any areas into which farmers have invested by planting trees, or investing in soil conservation, drainage and irrigation.The strength of communal rights systems is that they restrict sales to outsiders of the community, or subject them to community approval.Studies in Africa have shown that customary systems can provide sufficient tenure security for investment (Bruce & Migot-Adholla, 1994).
The vast majority of investment in agriculture in the sub-region is from private domestic sources.Public investment in individual countries is historically small.National and local level governments can enact and implement policies that encourage access of smallholders to additional sources of funding, including microcredit, revolving grants, and crop insurance.Remittances from abroad and international donor investment are also important funding sources.Local civil society organizations, such as farmer cooperatives and water user associations, must have access to financing not only to cover capital costs for irrigation infrastructure, per se, but also for operation and maintenance of these systems.
Capacity building is thus imperative, and this should be promoted by governmental and non-governmental institutions, particularly the international NGOs and UN-based system organizations with their enormous financial and intellectual capital.Support to countries in the sub-region from these organizations should be on a wide range of complementary approaches, through training, information, communications, tools and equipment, advisory services for institutional strengthening, policy reforms and national programming.Common among countries in the sub-region is ineffective underperforming agricultural research institutions.Significant achievements could be made by building the capacities of local agricultural research institutes with national research mandate to promote the sustainable use and management of agricultural land and natural resources.Such centres with objectives underpinned in knowledge generation on agricultural natural resources and agro-ecosystems as well as research application; innovative technology development; and technology transfer, must conduct research, drive technology development and transfer in order to promote agriculture and related industries; and ensure natural resource conservation for poverty alleviation and a better quality of life.

Conclusion
Land is a primary asset at the centre of Central Africa's development challenge, as three-quarters of its people depend on it directly for their subsistence.Land degradation thus increases poverty and vulnerability, impedes agricultural growth, and contributes to social tensions as well as threatening biodiversity.This dominance of land as a source of wealth for economies in the Central African sub-region makes land policy especially politically sensitive and effective policies need to be based on an understanding of the political economy context.For the sub-region, environmental change, climate and population pressure are important in explaining land use, particularly the area allocated for agriculture to promote production of higher-value enterprises.Land policies, therefore, need to effectively accommodate not only customary land tenure into national legislation while improving the ability of disadvantaged groups such as women to own land within formal and customary systems where they often lack rights, but also adaptation to climate change.It is acknowledged that for Central Africa to achieve its development goals, climate change adaptation is a priority.An effective land policy and land administration will provide support to the implementation of adaptation measures that enhance agriculture and peoples' resilience for increased food security.This entails clarifying not only existing tenure of multiple users of the land, but also helping stakeholders negotiate new rules of resource access and use in the face of climate-induced disturbance to the status quo.

Figure 2 .%
Figure 2. Agriculture area per unit of national land area (%)