Do Extra-Curricular Activities Effect Student Leadership in Institutions: Sport?

“Does sport have an effect on student leadership?” or “Does sport really help in shaping a leader?” are the questions that still cannot be reveal clearly. Many studies have been done to answer this question but it does not seem to have a final and complete answer. This is because some of the research has come out with the conclusion that sport really does help in creating a quality leader and some of it does not agree with this. This is because, they found out that sport only helps in the students’ physical achievement not in their leadership skills. Physical activity can improve psychomotor skill, fluency of blood flowing through the whole body, calming our thinking, awake happiness and upgrade academic performance (Taras, 2005). This paper will help in explaining what is really meant by leadership, student perceptions of leadership, extra-curricular, the benefit of extra-curricular, how curricular affect leadership, leadership in institution’s associations, sports, and sport leadership.


Introduction
The demand for employee's "soft skills" like sociability, teamwork, and leadership has become high nowadays (Dhuey & Lipscomb, 2008).Leadership is the most important skill needed in labour.Kuhn and Weinberger (2005) made a research that show leadership experience among high school students are expected to get extensively higher salary and are more likely to become a leader of an organization.Northouse (2010) describes Leadership as a process of an individual influence their group to accomplish a common goal.The individual stated is referred to as a leader as someone in a team that acts as the leader.(Curphy & Hogan, 1994) stat that a leader will play a vital role in managing the group not only giving the order, but also involve influencing other people and pursue a common goal for group welfare.Hogan et al., (1994) also identify the categories of leader behaviours which are informing, problem solving, planning and organizing, motivating, clarifying, monitoring, consulting, supporting, recognizing, networking, managing conflict and team building, rewarding, developing and mentoring, and delegating.Zekan et al., (2012) in their article stated that a successful leaders have focused on traits, skills, behaviours and activities for leadership development to be succeed and they should have the ability to guide people around them.A good leader must be able to make their group members feel the group member feel comfortable with organizational environment and try to maintain it.
Other characteristics of an effective leader are honest, fair, farsighted, expressive, inspiring, supportive, reliable, a good listener, learn from their own mistake, respect other's opinion, have administrative skill and have strong communication skill.Meanwhile, some other researchers have stated other characteristic of a leader including, courage, abilities, self-confidence, intelligence, able to speak in public, interpersonal skill, communication skills, trustworthiness, ability to inspire others, and entrepreneurial abilities.Zekan et al. (2012) listed the personel trait of a great leader as positive, courage, dedication, strong desire, decisiveness, argumentativeness, fair, unselfish, knowledgeable, truthful, passionate and ability to make decisions as well as able to move quickly.All these characteristics are important to have in a leader; as the most influential characteristic of a leader is the personality features in the public's perception Kouzes and Posner (1993).

Leadership Style
There are two types of leadership style that are found to be the most efficient which are the transformational and the transactional.Transactional leadership present the most efficient in commitment to change as compared to transformational leadership style.There are about five different styles of transformational leadership.First is intellectual stimulation; the creativity and innovation are being stimulate to solve the problem arise with a new way.Second is individual consideration; the process of supporting others by teaching and sharing idea or knowledge between two parties as a mentor.Third is inspirational motivation; that grows up with a clear vision and promote a task with meaning and challenging to motivate them.Next is idealized influence which the leader have be able to influence others by taking the initiative, have the strong desire to complete the task efficiently and understand others.Last but not least, is the attributed charisma?This type of leader can act and speak charismatically to convince his/her followers to respect and admire him/her (Ahmad, Adi, Noor, Rahman, & Yushuang, 2013).
A transactional leader giving the reward and punishment fairly and it could increase the performance of the follower.Contingent reward is one of transactional leader which the reward system exchange happen between two parties; leader and followers.Second part of transactional leadership is active management-by-exception where the leader can make corrective action of the problem occur by examine and monitor the issue.The third dimension of transactional leader is passive management-by exception where the corrective action will be taken by the leader after a mistake happen (Ahmad et al., 2013).

Student Perceptions of Leadership
Many institution bodies urge giving the students opportunities to get involve in citizenship training practice, let them contribute service and boost up communities.Zekan et al., (2012) carried out a research study about student's leadership perspective and what student's believe that prevented them to be leaders.In their research there are several themes carried out through the interview method toward a few students; (a) leadership individual possession, (b) leadership positional, (c) leader possess particular qualities and skill and (d) act from internal motivation when it comes to the questions of their perceptions on what is leadership, what are the process of leadership, and who are the leaders.
Constraining and authoring beliefs that motivate the students to take the responsibility as a leader has been found in three categories such as other's support, opportunities and, background and environment.Meanwhile, it is said that, constraining belief will prohibit the students from play the roles as a leader.It is divided into three categories; lack of confidence, capabilities and opportunities.Jayasingam (2009) said that Malaysian's leader commonly categorized as collectivist society who are more emphasize on a group as a unit.Their culture more value on the group concern, goal of the group and collective needs over individual concerns.Collectivist society also emphasized harmonious relationship and most of leader in the organization avoid on giving negative comment to their subordinate to maintain the relationship.It is being said that the leaders use their own power and influence them as much as they can to manage the employee.
An investigation done by Turban and Jhones (1988) suggest that evaluation of a leader can highly effect by the similarities in personality.According to Albritton, Oswald, and Anderson (2008), said that normally people have the same perceptions about the leader characteristic needed.Rost (1993) can be categorized into two classes of leadership perception; industrial and post-industrial.Compared to Rost, Komives, Lucas, and McMahon, (1998) state that, industrial paradigm is the "myths" of leadership that have three features; (i) leader are born, not made, (ii) effective leader needs charisma and, (iii) follow standard way of leading.Post-industrial paradigm have three categorize which are; (i) leadership does not belong to anybody but it is based on relationship, (ii) leadership focus on changing and, (iii) everybody can be a leader, not only leader who are borne to be leader.The researcher who have done a research about the perception of leader in student population show four characteristic of leadership; (i) leadership is their own selves possession, (ii) leadership is positional,(iii) leader need to have particular skills and qualities and, (iv) the internal should work out as their own motivation.

Extra-Curricular Activities
Extracurricular activities are considered to be very effective for promoting a balance of mental and spiritual development, physical, and social development of students.Curricular activities have been described as allowing the youngsters to mingle around with colleagues and adults in order setting and achieving goals, healthy competition, a lift up from failure or disappointment, and resolving disputes peacefully (Caldwell & Smith, 2005).Extra-curricular activities also can afford to give the students with get along with more peers and adults relationship who have similar interest and talents (Klesse & D'Onofrio, 2000).Students who participate in the curricular activities have the opportunities to success individually, chance to excel individually, make them be part of group and get the real experience about the importance of commitment, hard work, teamwork and responsibility.
Participation in extra-curricular activities improves a youngster's opportunities to prevent them from bad behaviour such as smoking, pregnant at young age, involve in delinquency, drug abuse or alcohol through three mechanisms (Klesse & D'Onofrio, 2000).Other than that (Klesse & D'Onofrio, 2000) have said that extra-curricular activities could be beneficial in three ways.The first concern is about time displacement, if a young person spends much time in beneficial or harmless activities, it will prevent them from activities that are not useful or illegal.Second, building a commitment by enhance skill development, creating objective as aspiration and gain real-life lesson, strengthen the commitment among youth to conventional institution through constructive activities such as school and traditional career path.Last but not least, is group pressure: the idea that sense of belonging or membership can be practice in team involvement, participate in club and group activities.It is also said to be beneficial to develop and practice artistic, musical, and talent in psycho-motor, skills in leadership, and career in future and occupational skills (Klesse & D'Onofrio, 2000).

How Curricula Affect Leadership
According to Klesse & D'Onofrio, (2000), activities provided should be enjoyable, but the most important thing is that most important skills and training should be taught to participant of the activities which need a communication, setting goal, organization it selves, teamwork, decision making, conflict resolution and toleration within group.Mainly, the leadership skills needed are sometimes contain in the classroom lesson but it is the skill that practically applicable as part of a club or organization and complement, such as task responsibility assigning for the person in family that contain good lesson and consumer science.For instance, A person which implement creative project plan with public relation activities assigned.Klesse & D'Onofrio, (2000) said that person will get some benefits of cognitive factor from the activities such as social relationship, self-confidence, self-esteem, and leadership skill.Allison (1979) has concluded that the extra-curricular activities have let the students to combine the academic knowledge and into personel activities.It is because the students who get involve in extra-curricular activities will perform better in academic result rather than the students who do not involve but they are as well as perfectly develop the other.The student's involvement in extra-curricular activities especially activities such as competition and real-world simulations will able to enrich and extend the student's skill in academic.

Leadership in Institution's Associations
Role of the chair's leadership in the school, club or any association at higher institution are the main factor to implement the result successfully.Bassoppo-Moyo (2007) in their research found that the leadership support are very important for program review result in order to get successful result of the program.Key leader are responsible to give the approval for each of the College-wide change.Many research said that successful implementation of program review result is depend on the role of a leader.The chair's duties of the program review and implementation of the program review result is important to be defining properly for the program to be plan and evaluate the importance of chair's role (Tucker, 1993).Moreover, the duties of the department chair is provide the information about department to assist the internal or external evaluation, presenting change pelan or future improvement plan, as well as personel management of self-study, discuss for better decision, try hard to keep the good and perform other administrative work efficiently such as verifying and collecting data, and explaining the programme to consultants or other reviewers (Bassoppo-Moyo, 2007).
Even though it could have many positive impacts on the student, it is also could have a negative impact.The research have found that the responsibilities cannot be giving or moving to anybody in the institution apart from the chair because it is very important (Barak & Breire, 1990).The chair is also considered as the main key leadership toward the implementation of the program review.The chair is also the key leadership in the implementation of the programme review results.Thus, to ensure the program successful, the role of the chair's leadership is very important.Besides that, the knowledge and strategies of those chairs are very useful for successful implementation program review result of the academic program's leaders and other leaders outside the academic organisations (Bassoppo-Moyo, 2007).

Sport
Sport can generate the economy of the country.It could be generated from large-scale sports events in the regional economy.It also affects the urban infrastructure, construction modification on buildings, and infrastructure to accommodate high class sports events in the country.The traditional concept of sport changed a little after 1992, becoming more competitive.Sport was embedded with new technology and training for performance, all sorts of sports events becoming more and more fierce and cruel (Sun, 2011).
Sport can be considered as an activity involving physical exertion and skill that is governed by a set of rules or customs and often undertaken competitively by some individuals or groups.Individuals or families who know the importance of it will encourage the student to join sports schools and to interact with reliable sports coaches because it has been shown that participating such activities develops mental and individual structure, strengthens willpower, simplifies teamwork, ensures cooperation, improves self-confidence and self-control, and contributes to learning (Zekan et al., 2012).According to Sarı, Soyer and Gülle (2014), sports may develop interpersonal skills in those challenging situations as well as improving athletes' ability to evaluate contingencies.Sports can build one's character, leadership skills, and promote life-long learning, and these skills can be used to manage in hard times.Moreover, sports can also promote leadership styles that deal with changes in management strategy by understanding team members' strengths and weaknesses, thus preparing them to handle future changes (Sugarman, 2000).
Participating in organized sports activities can result in developmental benefits and developmental liabilities to the student.Increased fitness, academic success, self-esteem and competency, and increased recognition by peers are a few examples of the benefits that have been stated by some researchers.Other research has shown that participation in sports provides an opportunity for enhancement of self-esteem, self-efficacy, competence, academic achievement, and good health (Zekan et al., 2012).

Method
To see how sport can give impact on student leadership, information had been collected by using document analysis.Documents involved were journals, books and research reports.From the analysis we found that sports can affect students' leadership as the following discussion.

Results: How Sport Affects Leadership
Organization and discipline should be stressed while students are playing games or doing any activity, to guarantee carrying the programme out smoothly.Especially after grouping, every individual should complete their task or play the game in the way designed and by the rules (Chen, 2013).In sport, the coach is the person who has the power, which term is synonymous with action.The challenge for coaches is taking the right actions-actions that contribute to the all-round development of athletes when they participate in sport and throughout the rest of their lives.Reward, coercive, referent, legitimate, and expert power is the most influential work to make the efficient work or jobs conducted by the coach.It is important for the coach to understand and know how to use power for career progression because those who understand it are more effective than who are not (Ehsani, Koozechian, & Moradi, 2012).
People who practice sports will face physical and psychological overload.Technical and tactical skills are covered in the training sessions, psychological features which are necessary for sportive success are often neglected, and many athletes who perform well in competitions do not perform in a similar way in stressful situations.The most important factor for this difference is anxiety level of athletes (Sarı et al., 2014).Assertiveness is one of the most important things in communication.It could be said that people have three different types of behaviour in communication.Sarı et al.'s (2014) research defines an assertive as an individual who is concerned about other people and knows his or her own rights.A person who knows the importance of assertiveness in communication encourages his or her children to join sports schools and to interact with reliable sports coaches because it has been shown that participating in sports activities develops mental and individual structure, strengthens the willpower, simplifies teamwork, ensures cooperation, improves self-confidence and self-control, and contributes to learning (Sarı et al., 2014).
According to Lupu (2011), each group needs to have a leader who they call the "boss" (responsible for the group, the team captain, etc.), who plays a vital role in directing the team towards a common goal.The leader's activity and the leadership are strongly connected with the organization, decision-making, surveillance and control of the collective actions.Activities that take place in physical education and sports classes are not purely of a motoric nature, but they also stimulate the leadership attitude of students.Competitive activities are useful in the development of leadership attitude and as a form of education for students' life preparation.The students' attitude, presented in the comparison of two groups, has modified only under the influence of the applied programme, which brought something new to the instructive process-competition.The competitive activities must be organized systematically to stimulate the group climate, the students' positive attitude towards motion also educate their leader attitude, thus confirming the test of the hypothesis (Lupu, 2011).Chelladurai, (2011) in his research, revealed how leadership in sport which a coach does according to several leadership characteristic such as vision and mission through which the coach creates a new vision for the performer by setting new objectives and instituting new strategies.Other than that, by inspirational communication the coach inspires the athletes by stimulating enthusiasm, confidence building, instilling pride, enhancing morale, setting example of courage and dedication, and sharing the hardships to extend themselves to achieve excellence.
Intellectual stimulation could be done when the athlete's coach engages the intellect by challenging existing assumptions and attitudes, encouraging creativity and innovation, and presenting holistic perspectives.Then, the individualized and supportive leadership when the coach pays individualized and personal attention to each member, expressing appreciation for the efforts, providing corrective feedback, assigning special responsibilities, counselling, and being concerned and supportive.Ehsani et al. (2011) found that reward from coaches have meaningful relationship with satisfaction athletes.Coaches who use the power of the reward, will have the capacity to act and influence others.It is important for the coaches to provide something that others want or value.These rewards may have material or emotional value, for example, a smile of approval, positive verbal feedback from the leader, a cash prize, or selection to a special team, so coaches can provide appropriate feedback on the athlete's performance and behaviour, which can lead to the athlete satisfaction.
Next is the personal recognition where the coach provides rewards such as praise for small achievements.After that is the demanding and directive leadership which in sport could be boring and tiring both mentally and physically, and the coach needs the pursuit of excellence in the practice.Another is technical training in which the coach's instruction and directives act toward increasing athletes' physical and physiological capacities.The finding of this research shows that the athletes preferred their coaches to be relatively more autocratic in decision-making pointing to a hard leadership.Meanwhile autonomy-supportive leadership, which fosters a sense of well-being and intrinsic motivation in the individual is labelled soft leadership.
It is known that sports coaches' leadership features are very important (Heppner & Krauskopf, 1987).Every athlete needs assistance from a sports coach regardless of his/her talent or effort exerted.A sports coach is not only responsible for training the athletes or teaching the sports techniques; the most important responsibility is increasing athletes' performance by coaches' own leadership features.Sports coaches often evaluate athletes' motor behaviour to reach their performance goals in the competitions to support the athletes.As a result of sports coaches' feedback and behaviours, athletes decide to behave in such a way that the sport coaches' feedback either increases athletes' assertiveness or diminish it which could lead to losing the competition.In the light of these explanations, the aim of this research was to investigate the role of athletes' perceptions of their coaches' leadership behaviour as a predictor of athletes' assertiveness in individual sports (Sarı et al., 2014).

It is crucial that coaches have a clear understanding of what could change the athletes' behaviours or what could
have an effect on their perceptions or behaviours.It is also important to identify all the factors which could affect athletes which could lead to finding effective ways for performance enhancement.Therefore, it seems to be important to identify which coaching behaviours could contribute to the athletes' assertiveness.It is assumed that coaches play a very active role in training and competition.Sports coaches spend most of their time in interacting with the athletes, trying to motivate team members and provide feedback (Sarı et al., 2014).
That research also found that the assertiveness of the athletes significantly and positively correlated with training and instruction behaviour, democratic behaviour, social support behaviour, and positive feedback behaviour, and results in the athlete's assertiveness levels increase while these coaching behaviours are experienced.As well as the training and instruction behaviour, which makes the strongest contribution, a second contribution was made by autocratic behaviour.It is also found that training and instruction behaviour positively affects athletes' assertiveness whereas autocratic behaviour negatively affected it.It shows that autocratic behaviour by sports coaches could negatively affects athletes' assertiveness.When the athletes do not join in the decision-making process their assertiveness may deteriorate.As a result, overall the training and instruction behaviour of coaches seemed to be important to increase athletes' assertiveness.It could also be said that sports coaches should be less autocratic and must try to increase training and instruction behaviours instead (Sarı et al., 2014).It is supported by the statement from Jayasingam (2009) which found autocratic power to have a negative influence on leadership effectiveness.Lupu (2011) stated that the coach can create intellectual activities, thought, attention, memory, imagination, creativity, and interest in sport.The research has been carried out in the games of handball and basketball, because they produce pleasure and bring immediate satisfaction through the marked scores, thus having a positive impact on the students' psyche.The research found that the appropriate behaviour imposed by the regulation of the competitions prepares the young student to be balanced, to balance the others around him, to induce a calm atmosphere in the institution where he will develop his professional activity.
Several research studies had been conducted in connection with the role of sports with leadership.Kunj (2009, p. 61) stated respondent's feedback that, "Leadership skills can be developed because each team captain or committee members will learn to manage the team, especially in dealing with the teams from other schools ..." (Basketball player).Nanta Julias (2010, p. 57), respondents also submit respondent feedback about Volleyball that can train students to become leaders in the context stress management, "... the most significant example when we feel depressed or anxious during ... the computation ... the easiest way to deal with these feelings is take a deep breath."(volleyball player).In addition Mohd.Yusof (2010, p. 74) point out the respondents' feedback "... discipline is emphasized because playing netball need a higher level of discipline."(Basketball player).Wright & Cote (2003, p. 279) stated respondent feedback, "I spoke with officials all the time.Yeah, like anytime I was a captain with the hockey team there was always stuff like that."(Hockey Player) As a conclusion it is obvious that through sports, students can develop leadership skills as they learn about communication skill, discipline themselves and handle the stress to become a good leader.

Discussion
Leaders recognize the talents and capabilities of individuals through interaction with them on a day-to-day basis.The leadership styles that are found to be most efficient in sport are of two types which are the transformational and transactional.Compared to those that have transformational leadership style, transactional leadership was demonstrated to be more efficient in commitment to change.Transformational leadership involves the building of relationships with followers through personal, emotional, and inspirational exchanges, so that they are motivated to perform better.Leaders with the transformational behaviours will be able to influence followers' values and attitudes such as their incorporation of the organizations' moral values and collective orientation.It also influences the followers' view on social exchange oriented relationships with their team members and in turn, it influences intra-team interaction and communication.
Interaction with leader characteristics will produce immediate response in the pursuit of goals, as good leaders set the goals, commit themselves to these goals and pursue these goals with the assistance of the team and with all the ability they can muster.The goals that have been developed should be achievable and the team capable.The commitment of a leader is transmissible.There are many leader characteristics that support the effectiveness of a coach.Coaches have to develop skill in handling the team by adapting leader characteristics such as creating new visions in performers, inspirational communication, rewards, being individualized and supportive, directive leadership, motivation and so on.It is important for the athlete to get direction from the coach to success regardless of his/her talent or effort exerted.Leadership features of the coach are not only responsible for training the athletes or teaching the sports techniques but the most important responsibility which is increasing athletes' performance.It is crucial that coaches have a clear understanding of what could change the athletes' behaviours or what could have an effect on their perceptions or behaviours.
Sports can affect people physically and psychologically.In psychological terms, it could benefit the person in improving assertiveness, developing mental and individual structure, strengthening willpower, simplifying teamwork, ensuring cooperation, improving self-confidence and self-control, and contributing to learning.The leader's activity and the leadership is strongly connected with organization, decision-making, surveillance and control of the collective actions.Competitive activities are useful in the development of leadership attitude and as a form of education for students' life preparation.Thus, the sports activities that are highly competitive seem to develop leadership attitude.
Leadership is something that can be learnt; one is not born with it nor is it inherited by descendants as stated in myths of leadership.As everybody is aware of the benefits of the development of leadership skills among students, many institutions have gathered their efforts to increase the level of leadership among students, especially the graduates who are seeking job opportunities after graduation.As stated above, people see leadership as an individual possession, leadership as positional; leaders possess certain qualities and skills, and leaders act from personal motivations.
Extra-curricular activities are enjoyable activities for students to sustain a healthy lifestyle.At the same time, extra-curricular activities organized by the institution are part of the effort to provide the students with leadership skills.It also said that they can improve a person's self-esteem, self-confidence, social cooperation which component of effectiveness could also be considered as leadership skills.Individuals or families who know the importance of sport will encourage the student or their family to join sports schools and to interact with reliable sports coaches.Sports coaches also perform all the leader characteristics but on the sports field.It is shown that the extra-curricular activities could affect leadership skills among students in institutions.