Modeling Employees ’ Career in Relation to Self and Superior Ratings of Job Performance

This study is designed to investigate the effect of job performance on employees’ Career Advancement (CA). Two aspects of job performance such as task performance (TP) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) have been investigated in this study. This study also contributed for a further knowledge by adopting the multiple sources of ratings on individuals’ job performance (e.g. self-ratings, superior-ratings). The data was gathered through mail survey method from 390 paired respondents. The result presented that self-rating of TP was the only factor that associated with employees’ intrinsic CA. There were no significant relationships between self-ratings of OCB on employees’ extrinsic as well as on employees’ intrinsic CA. This study also showed that superior-rating of OCB was the only factor that associated with employees’ intrinsic CA. There were no significant relationships between superior-ratings of TP on employees’ extrinsic CA, as well as on employees’ intrinsic CA. This study contributed some new knowledge which can be channeled to the Ministry of Education (MOE) to improve the level of TP and OCB among teachers, particularly in the Malaysian context.


Introduction
A career is an interesting sensation which able to give an impact in various aspects of a person's life.Careers are subject to economic, societal, cultural, and infrastructural factors (Gunz et al., 2011).In this study, we decided to focus on CA which is synonymous with career development with only a slight difference in focus (Jogulu & Wood, 2011).The previous refers to the status or what an employee achieves as a result of the activities to improve one's career, whereas the latter refers to the process undertaken by the organization and the employee to improve the employee's performance and job position (O'Neil et al., 2011).In Malaysia, there are many complaints against Ministry of Education (MOE) concerning teachers' CA as reported by the media.Empirical investigations also supported that there were dissatisfactions regarding teachers' CA in Malaysia.The issue of job satisfaction became important because it received a lot of complaints from teachers particularly in terms of promotion.Some researchers found that the Malaysian teachers were not satisfied with their career progress.Teachers are part of the back bones for the Malaysian national education transformational plan.This education transformational plan aims to equip every student in the country with the new skills as they need to take the challenges towards the 21 st century (MOE, 2012).In Malaysia, teachers' performance become essential since it is the main criteria that will be taken into account in determining teachers' CA.
Existing literature suggests that performance factor separates into two domains; namely TP and OCB.Therefore, TP and OCB may become important in representing the performance factor of the Malaysian teachers.In realizing Malaysia's aspiration towards the development of its first class human capital, the Malaysian teachers are expected to perform not only the tasks as prescribed in their job requirements (e.g.TP), but they are also expected to demonstrate the voluntary behaviors (e.g.OCB).Teaching is one of the professions that requires employee to display OCB in order to help students, colleagues and organization.Teachers are responsible to manage the works regarding curriculum and co-curriculum.They are also responsible to display citizenship behavior when teachers need to spend extra time guiding students after school.This means that TP alone may not be enough for teachers to fulfill their job requirements.Thus, this study is about to investigate the effect of TP and OCB on CA, particularly in the context of the Malaysian teachers.An ideal assessment would combine information from multiple sources (including self) to form an integrated assessment that maximize the strength and minimize the weaknesses of single information sources.Given that, this study would like to utilize the dyadic approach.Therefore, the data regarding teachers' TP and OCB had been gained from teachers (self ratings) and management representatives (superior ratings).Thus, it is expected that these multiple sources of data will strengthen the research findings.

The Concept of Career Advancement (CA)
The general topic of career has been studied extensively for many years.Zainal (2009) suggested that career to be defined according to the nature and the purpose of a study.Hence, various researchers provided a wide range of career definitions.In many cases, a person's career can also create a main part of their individuality, when "what you do" determines "who you are" (Briscoe et al., 2011).As a consequence of shifting career patterns, the importance of the subjective (intrinsic) career has been brought to the frontage (Ituma et al., 2011).The subjective or the intrinsic career refers to the intangible type and is measured in terms of psychological and dispositional factors such as job satisfaction, career satisfaction, sense of value, learning, and self-awareness.Meanwhile the objective or the extrinsic career is measured by the tangible type and visible attributes such as income, promotion and job level/position (Tremblay et al., 2014).Therefore, a focus on intrinsic career naturally suggests that individuals' attitudes, personalities, and traits are important if one is to understand how individuals view and make career decisions.However, this study is designed to investigate both types of teachers' career including the extrinsic one such as promotion, and the intrinsic such as CS.Hence, it will gain further information on both types of teachers' career in the Malaysian context.

The Concept of Job Performance, TP and OCB
Job performance as accessible actions, behavior and outcomes that employee involve in that are related with and contribute to organizational goals (Hafidz et al., 2012).Job performance assesses whether employee perform a job well.In the other word, the work related activities expected of an employee and how well those activities were performed.It studied academically as part of industrial and organizational psychology also forms a part of human resource management.Many people in charge assess the job performance of each employee on an annual or quarterly basis in order to help them identify suggested areas for improvement.A plausible explanation seems to be the one given by Bergeron et al. (2013) which for career evolution, the time spent on TP is more important than the time spent on OCB, reason for which the higher-education degree holders focus more on TP, as they have better chances of career outcome (i.e., performance evaluation, salary increase, advancement speed, promotion).Previous researchers have grouped job performance around two dimensions, which are TP and OCB.According to the existing literature, TP is commonly referred to the accomplishment tasks as stated in job description.Meanwhile, OCB is referred to employees that go above and beyond the requirements listed in their job descriptions.Therefore, with an increasingly competitive job market, employees are expected to go above and beyond the requirements listed in their job descriptions (Bergeron et al., 2013).Employers measure employee TP through a variety of tools and processes.Some use more than one, but smaller businesses often choose one tool that works best for them and use it constantly.Systems been used for measurement, called performance appraisals (Boachie-Mensah et al., 2012).

Self-ratings and Superior-ratings
There were several methods of appraising employee through the performance appraisal.In this study, we attempts to look into two types of appraisal called self-ratings and superior-ratings.Self-rating tools allow employee to rate himself against the same or similar criteria used by his supervisor (superior).This method can raise the credibility level of the process in the view of the employee; especially when the employee's self-assessment score lines up closely with that of the supervisor.When the scores are somewhat at odds with one another, this tool offers discussion processes whereby these differences can be discussed in a safe, constructive manner (Boachie-Mensah, 2012).According to Hii and Ahmad (2015), self-efficacious raters understand clearly the performance appraisal system are now more confident and perceive themselves as competent raters.However, it can generally be concluded that self-ratings tend to disagree with the evaluations of others, including immediate supervisor (superior).Put differently, employees tend to give themselves higher marks than their immediate supervisors do.
While according to Nielsen and Daniels (2012), superior-rating involves with a study that examined job related resources to explain how leaders influence follower outcomes in performance appraisal system.As explained by Nisula (2015) this evaluation will let the superior and employee increase the support level with the discussions of employee strengths and weaknesses and dissolving other pending job issues related to appraisal.At the same time, superior should make it a point of making periodic notes on each of the employees to be appraised (Akinbowale et al., 2013).Routinely, the supervisor (superior-ratings) and employee (self-ratings) will track the employee's progress toward achieving the performance expectations/goals using the measures specified on the form.This information will enable the supervisor to provide regular specific feedback and coaching.Therefore, this study has utilized both types of ratings in collecting the expected data.

Relationship between Job Performance Factors and CA
Several studies had been conducted to examine the effect of job performance on employees' career outcomes such as performance evaluation and reward recommendations.However, less is known regarding the effect of job performance factors on employees' career outcomes in the perspective of CA although it was the objective that every employees are looking forward in their career journey.Therefore, this study attempts to investigate the combination effect of TP and OCB on employees' CA, especially in the Malaysian context.Since the inconsistent findings were presented by the previous research, this study attempts to provide further knowledge regarding the relationship between job performance factors (e.g.TP, OCB) and CA in the perspective of the Malaysian teachers.Please refer to the proposed conceptualized framework as given in Figure 1.

Sample and Data Collection Method
The population of this research includes all teachers from all Primary Schools in the northern region of Peninsular Malaysia.This study had utilized the dyadic approach.The data regarding teachers' extrinsic CA, intrinsic CA, TP and OCB had been obtained from the perspective of teachers in the view of self-ratings.At the same time, the data regarding teachers' TP and OCB had been obtained from the perspective of the school's representatives (e.g.Headmasters) in the superior-ratings view.This is to ensure that teachers' performance had been assessed by using combination sources of teachers and school representatives.Thus, two sets of questionnaires had been designed, namely the Teachers' Survey Set and the Managements' Survey Set.
In this study, extrinsic CA is referred to the standard movement of teachers' promotion which has several levels of grade according to the MOE.Hence, it becomes the most practical variable to measure the extrinsic CA of the Malaysian teachers.CS is the most popular measure for the intrinsic component of CA (Hofmans et al., 2008).Hence it may also appropriate to be tested among teachers in this study.The population size of this study is equal to 17,467 teachers.According to the previous researchers, a sample size of 375 teachers is acceptable.However, a bigger sample size is needed to overcome the possibility of non-response problem for a mail survey.The researcher distributed 800 set of questionnaires to the paired respondents.However, the usable number of the returned questionnaires was only 390.However, it was greater than the minimum number of the sample size.

Instrumentation
There are seven (7) questions had been developed to obtain data regarding teachers' demographic background in Teachers' Survey Set.Meanwhile, there are eight (8) questions had been developed to gain data on management representatives' demographic background in Managements' Survey Sets.The tests for demographic background were only conducted for a descriptive analysis.
As for the extrinsic CA, the nominal scale had been used.In this study, the criterion of promotion refers to three (3) items.The first promotion item concerns with the data regarding teachers' first grade of appointment.The second promotion item asks respondents to state either they has received the promotion or not.The third promotion item asks respondents to tick the highest grade of their attainment.As for the intrinsic CA, the Greenhaus et al. (1990) scale of CS is fully adopted.The instrumentation of teachers' OCB is adopted from DiPaola et al. ( 2004 Next, the instrumentation for teachers' TP was developed accordingly to the Annual Work Performance Report (AWPR) form.This form had been used by the management representative to complete the performance appraisal process for the all teachers in Malaysia.There are 4 aspects of performance such as job outputs (5 questions), the knowledge and skills (3 questions), the personal quality (5 questions) and the activities and contributions outside the official duties (1 question).As stated in the AWPR form, the evaluation scales for TP ranged from 1 to 10.

Descriptive Statistics
According to the results from Teachers' Survey Set, the findings show that the distribution of gender is higher for females with the figure of 298 female respondents (76.4%) compare to 92 male respondents (23.6%).Over half of the respondents (52.05%) are in the range age of '30 to 39 years' old.There are 28.72% and 15.13% of the respondents come in the range age of '40 to 49 years' old and 'below 30 years' old.About 4.1% of respondents come from the category of age '50 years and above'.
The results for the extrinsic CA presented that only 45.4% of respondent (177 teachers) get the promotion.That means about 54.6% of respondents (213 teachers) did not receive any promotion during their career.If we look at the results from Managements' Survey Set, the distribution of gender is higher for females (54.62%) compare to male (45.38%).About 78.46% of respondents are at the age of '50 years and above'; followed by 15.38% and 4.62% of respondents are at the age of '40 to 49 years' and '30 to 39 years' old each.The remaining 1.54% of respondents comes from the category of age 'below 30 years' old.

Means, SD, Minimum and Maximum Value
The results for the related descriptions based on the questionnaires were reported in Table 3 and Table 4.As reported in Table 3, the results from Teachers' Survey Set (self-ratings) shows the mean score for TP and OCB are at 7.20 and 4.06.Thus, it shows that all teachers practice the high level of TP and OCB in the Malaysian educational context.The maximum score of 10.00 for TP and 5.00 for OCB also confirms that some teachers perceive they are fully committed with the maximum roles in TP and OCB activities.Meanwhile, the SD for CS and OCB are reported at 0.67 and 0.40.These show that most teachers are close to the mean for intrinsic CA and voluntary behaviors.The SD for TP also reached the highest score of 1.13.Next, as reported in Table 4, results from Managements' Survey Set (superior-ratings) presents the mean of superior-ratings for teachers' TP and OCB are at 7.91 and 3.61.These indicate that managements' representatives also have such high ratings on teachers' TP and OCB in the Malaysian educational context.The minimum of 3.64 for TP and 2.25 for OCB indicates that some management representative may not accept several TP and OCB activities.However, some of them are highly perceived that their respective teachers are fully engage in TP and OCB activities.The maximum score of 10.00 and 5.00 each are presented for TP and OCB.Finally, the SD of superior-ratings for teachers' OCB is rather small at 0.36.Meanwhile, the SD for superior-ratings' of teachers' TP is rather high at score of 1.08.

Correlations Analyses
The results for the inter-correlations between variables for self-ratings and superior-ratings have been given in Table 5 and Table 6.The tests of CA dimension had been measured in term of NOP (extrinsic) and CS (intrinsic).
In the perspective of self-ratings (teachers), TP and OCB showed bivariate relationship among all variables.
Particularly, in term of extrinsic CA, the NOP and TP is positively correlated (r=.16, p<.01).The NOP and OCB is also positively correlated (r=.17, p<.01).Next, in term of the intrinsic CA, CS and TP are also positively correlated (r=.20, p<.01).Similarly, CS and OCB are also correlated (r=.11, p<.05).In the perspective of superior-ratings or management representatives, NOP (extrinsic) is positively correlated with management ratings of teachers' OCB (r=.11, p<.05), but not correlated with teachers' TP.As for the intrinsic CA, there are positive correlations between CS and superior-ratings of teachers' TP (r=.10, p<.05).Also, there are positive correlations between CS and superior-ratings of teachers' OCB (r =.13, p<.01).

Regression Analyses
The test of regression analyses for self-ratings of TP and OCB on NOP (extrinsic) is presented in Table 7.This study found that self-rating of TP (β=.09, t=1.45, p=.15) is not significantly related to NOP.Similarly, self-rating of OCB (β=.11, t=1.70, p=.09) is also not significantly related to NOP.
Table 7. Regression analysis of TP and OCB on NOP (self-ratings) The test of regression analyses for self-ratings of TP and OCB on CS (intrinsic) is presented in Table 8.In terms of intrinsic CA or CS, although the result found that OCB is not significantly related to CS (β=-.03,t=-.42, p=.68); however self-ratings of TP (β=.22,t=3.45, p=.00) is significantly related to CS.
Table 8.Regression analysis of TP and OCB on CS (self-ratings) Next, the test of regression analyses of superior-ratings for TP and OCB on NOP (extrinsic) is presented in Table 9. Results in the perspective of superior ratings also found that superior-ratings of teachers' TP (β=.04, t= .61,p=.55) and teachers' OCB (β=.08, t=1.23, p=.22) are not significantly related to NOP.Finally, the test of regression analyses of superior-ratings for TP and OCB on CS (intrinsic) is presented in Table 10.As shown, results found that superior-ratings of teachers' TP (β=.03, t=.45, p=.65) is not significantly related to CS.However, superior-ratings of teachers' OCB (β=.11, t=1.71, p=.01) is significantly related to CS.With regards the relationship between TP and extrinsic CA, it presented that TP and NOP is not significantly related.This finding was inconsistent with Bergeron (2005) study who found that TP and extrinsic CA (e.g.promotion, speed to CA) are associated positively among academician in UK.In the Malaysian educational context, there are eight ( 8) aspects (e.g.acknowledgement from the Headmaster, free from being any disciplinary action) are considered in promoting the Malaysian teachers.Hence, TP may not be the only aspect that has been taken into consideration when making decision on teachers' promotion in Malaysia.Future investigation should focus on all aspects to look at the impact of NOP among teachers in Malaysia.
With regards the relationship between OCB and extrinsic CA, it also presented that OCB and NOP is not significantly related.This finding is also inconsistent with Bergeron (2005) study who found that several dimensions of OCB (e.g. research OCB, advising OCB, service OCB, professional service OCB) are positively and negatively related to extrinsic CA.Hence, in the perspective of the Malaysian teachers, OCB does not have any effect towards the increasing of NOP.OCB has made the organization more effective, thus it may take time to reward these behaviours.In addition, about 51.02% of respondents for this study had less than 10 years of teaching experience.Thus, they may be considered new in the institutions.Therefore, in a longer time we may see the positive effect of OCB towards their promotion.
With regards the relationship between TP and intrinsic CA, it is found that TP is likely to affect teachers' CS.However, there is no relationship between self-ratings of OCB and NOP.Also, there is no relationship between self-ratings of OCB and CS.Therefore, it leads to the assumption that OCB in teachers may become a threat towards their CA in the Malaysian context.

Superior-Ratings of TP and OCB on Teachers' CA
With regards the effects of TP and OCB on extrinsic CA, no significant relationship is found between TP and NOP.Also, no significant relationship was found between OCB and NOP.Thus, in the perspective of superior-ratings, TP and OCB may not the factor that may create any effect on teachers' NOP.In other words, the ratings of superior towards teachers' TP and OCB do not have any effect to influence NOP among the Malaysian teachers.
With regards the effects of TP and OCB on intrinsic CA, superior-ratings of TP is not significantly related to teachers' CS.However, results presented that superior-ratings of OCB is significantly related to teachers' CS.Thus, in the perspective of superior-ratings, TP is not counted in determining teachers CS.Meanwhile, the management representatives consider OCB as a predictor in determining teachers' CS in the Malaysian context.

Conclusions
It has been hypothesized that TP and OCB have significant relationships with teachers' promotion.However, results from this study reveal unexpected evidences.In the self-ratings, TP and OCB are not significantly related to teachers' NOP.Thus, this study confirms that NOP among the Malaysian teachers is not predicted by TP and OCB.Thus, it may be predicted by other aspects, such as ingratiation tactics or political behaviour which may predict promotion more than job performance domain.This study also hypothesized that TP and OCB have significant relationship with teachers' CS.However, only self-rating of TP is significantly related with teachers' CS.There was no any relationship between self-ratings of OCB and teachers' CS.Thus, in the perspective of teachers TP alone may not be enough to influence their NOP although it may increase the level of their CS.However, OCB in the perspective of teachers may not create any benefits towards their CA.This may be due to that in the eyes of teachers OCB is something that relevant to them only in helping the students.However, the findings of this study presented that superior-ratings of teachers' OCB was important in determining their CS.In the Malaysia educational context, it was confirmed that management representatives consider teachers' OCB in determining their intrinsic CA.However, there are no significant relationship was found between superior-ratings of TP on teachers' NOP.
With regards to superior-ratings' view, management representatives may expect that OCB should be performed by all teachers although there is no written requirement which clearly mentioned such behaviours.Thus, OCB seems to be a desire by managers who may encourage their subordinates to perform this behaviour (Oplatka, 2009).However, managers cannot officially ask them to perform.These may answer the things that in the perspective of superior, OCB is essential in most organizations including the educational sector.As stated by Oplatka (2009), OCB in teachers is related to the school's image and cooperation.Thus, teachers who perform OCB without seeking rewards may be intrinsically rewarded by their superior, who views their behaviour in a favorable light.With regards to self-ratings' view, there is no significant effect of OCB on teachers' NOP.There is also no significant effect of OCB on teachers' CS.This is maybe due to in the perspective of teachers OCB had been displayed without the expectation to gain any benefits towards their personal convenience such as CA.OCB in teachers is only displayed to help students and the educational sectors.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Conceptual framework of the study ) measurements.Likert Scales range from (1) strongly disagrees to (5) strongly agree for

Table 1 and
Table 2 indicate the measures of the study variables used in the study.

Table 1 .
Instrumentation of the study variables in teachers' survey set

Table 2 .
Instrumentation of the study variables in managements' survey set

Table 3 .
Means, SD, minimum and maximum of self-ratings

Table 4 .
Means, SD, minimum and maximum of superior-ratings

Table 9 .
Regression analysis of TP and OCB on NOP (superior-ratings)

Table 10 .
Regression analysis of TP and OCB on CS (superior-ratings)