Applied Physics Research, Issue: Vol.17, No.2

Making Sense of Quantum Superposition

Tue, 29 Jul 2025 03:06:13 +0000

In previous work, a new interpretation of spacetime diagrams has been presented. That new interpretation would define some spacetime areas where superposition seems to exist. Applied to the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox, locality would be back despite the observations of entanglement. A new experiment is proposed to test the idea. This work also leads to the idea that superposition can only exist for the wave, but the particle should have a single position. A second experiment is proposed to explore the link wave-particle and the complementarity principle.

Property of Tensor Satisfying Binary Law 6

Tue, 29 Jul 2025 03:11:34 +0000

I have already reported "Property of Tensor Satisfying Binary Law 5". This article is the article that I revise contents of "Property of Tensor Satisfying Binary Law 5", and increased the report about new characteristics. Proposition1∼Proposition5 and Proposition6 in this article had been already reported in Property of Tensor Satisfying Binary Law 5, but modification was made to those proposition. I report ∂3mμ∂xν∂xν∂xν=m which rewrote ∂3Mμ∂xν∂xν∂xν=M for the first time, and m expresses mass here.

The Connection of Gravity, Dark Matter, and Supermassive Black Holes via a Set of Particles Associated With Gravity

Tue, 29 Jul 2025 03:15:16 +0000

Gravity by far is the weakest force in the Universe and this weakness is not described by the Standard Model. Currently there is no known theory explaining why gravity is so weak or so different from other forces. This paper proposes a solution for this feebleness. In solving the gravity weakness problem, it was found that other unknowns in cosmology find possible answers. It is known that particles are found as groups or as families with special group behaviors. Additionally, not all families of particles interact by all the fundamental forces. For example, neutrals do not interact by the "charge force." This behavior presents the possibility that a special relationship may exist between a specific family of particles and a specific associated force for that family. Such a relationship is believed to have been found and presented in this work. This work finds the coupling constant of strength of a fundamental force and what is an associated family of states for that specific force. This finding has been tested and verified with the known families of particles and forces. This relationship is then used to determine and calculate the parameters of a proposed set of states associated with the force of gravity. The result of this association makes it clear why gravity is different and measured so weak. This hypothesis also provides an explanation why fundamental forces and particles are so related and predicts the possibility of a fifth force.

General Maxwell Theory of Fields (2): Explanations and Predictions of Some Phenomena

Tue, 29 Jul 2025 03:19:56 +0000

This paper firstly introduces the theoretical basis and main formulas of general relativity and general Maxwell theory of fields. Four new concepts of general Maxwell theory of fields are introduced. By using a comparative method, it lists the explanations of these two theories for four natural phenomena: the trajectory of Mercury perihelion, weak field approximation, gravitational lensing, and dark energy in the universe. Four properties predicted by the general Maxwell theory of fields are proposed: chromatic dispersion in the gravitational lensing, self-focusing effect of light, electromagnetic field and gravitowagnetic field can generate each other and transform to each other, the vector potential of magnetic field and the vector potential of wagnetic field should participate in the A-B effect together.

Cascade Tank Pressurization Method for Satellite-Delivering Rockets

Mon, 08 Sep 2025 07:14:31 +0000

Satellite-delivering rockets share a common problem—the dependency of pneumatic systems on electric networks driven by onboard computers that can fail and cripple/render the rocket inert. One such example is the propellant tank’s pressurization system. This article presents a novel approach entitled the Cascade Tank Pressurization Method, that solves this problem by iteratively discharging in a domino effect a cluster of composite overwrapped pressure vessels triggered in series. A Piping & Instrumentation Diagram is available. One-dimensional pneumatic analysis conducted on various size clusters show a fine control—of ullage pressure to a predefined target bandwidth—without any computer controls. Ultimately, a disruptive fully-pneumatic self-regulated tank pressurization system is presented, enabling the option for a more computer-decoupled rocket architecture.

Heuristic Approach to Gravitation as the Only Fundamental Interaction

Thu, 31 Jul 2025 02:29:44 +0000

Poher's theory of universons (gravitational quanta) makes it possible to reconcile general relativity and quantum physics. The universon, responsible for gravitation, could be the only elementary particle, making up electrons and quarks.

Based on this new quantum gravitation theory and extrapolating beyond, we propose that:

Each electron within the atom is a “cloud” of millions of universons, circulating in an erratic way around the nucleus as a result of constantly interacting with anisotropic flows of universons.
The tunneling effect is due to anisotropic fluxes of universons of much higher-than-average energy, giving a particle the additional energy allowing it to cross the potential barrier.
Radioactivity results from gravitation, more precisely from random fluctuations within anisotropic fluxes of universons and could be explained without relying on the weak and strong interactions.

Considering that universons interact only with subatomic particles (and not directly at the macroscopic/ supra-atomic level), the gravitational interaction at the subatomic level could be much stronger than at the macroscopic level; it could be revised upwards by a huge factor: 10³⁰ for nucleons and between 10³² and 10⁴⁸ for quarks.

Furthermore, within the nucleus, the repulsive force between protons could be weaker if we consider the charges of the d quark (-1⁄3) and u quark (+2⁄3) and not their overall charge +1.

Thus, the gravitational interaction revised upwards at the subatomic level could explain the cohesion of nucleons within the atomic nucleus and the cohesion of quarks, without relying on the strong interaction, making gravitation a candidate as the only fundamental interaction.

This heuristic approach still needs complementary studies and experimental validation.

Estimation of the Coupling Constants for the Strong Interaction in the Framework of the Electromagnetic Bridge Theory

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:16:35 +0000

A theoretical prediction of the strong coupling constant based on a non-perturbative framework derived from Bridge Theory (BT) application is presented, in which strong interactions emerge from electromagnetic dipole interactions (DEMS) between fractional charges. Without relying on Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD) or renormalization group formalism, we derive a functional expression for as a function of energy scale , based on the spatial and energetic configuration of quark interactions. The resulting function exhibits asymptotic freedom at high energies and yields values of in close agreement with experimental data in the 91–4000 GeV range. The predicted behaviour matches the experimental running of across various particle production channels, including , , and heavy boson processes. The model provides a geometric interpretation of strong coupling as an emergent electromagnetic effect governed by the local structure of the dipole system, avoiding the need for additional gauge fields. These results suggest that the strong coupling constant may derive from universal interaction principles and that strong force dynamics could be reinterpreted within an electromagnetic framework. The method is fully predictive and does not rely on fitted parameters.

An Analysis on the Energy Structure of Mass: A Study on the Energy Field of Mass and a Model for the Mass Composition

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:19:35 +0000

Mass, fundamentally linked to energy, space and time, operates as the source of an energy field that interacts with both the surrounding environment and other masses. However, leaving from the general frame fundamental questions remain unanswered. If the analysis of the field is deepened, what is the structure of the field? How do masses interact with each other? This study investigates the structural components of the energy field related to mass, analyzing the internal movements that take part for its formation. Through the examination of the interactions between these fields, the research investigates the conditions under which masses can combine to form more complex structures providing the conditions under which masses can be combined, or not, to compose bigger and more complex forms of masses. As more complex structures are formed, this paper proposes a categorization frame. The reference to established theoretical models, aims to enhance the comprehension of mass-energy mechanism and the principles governing the synthesis of complex forms. Finally, it proposes a model for the structure of masses, describing the synthesis of the fundamental molecule of hydrogen.

The Effect of Dark Energy Attenuation on the Property of Schwarzschild – de Sitter Space-Time Metric

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:22:16 +0000

In recent papers, axioms were framed (by one of us – G. AR) for the primordial Space which is in and out of the universe with no boundary. From those axioms a formula for the massiveness of a macro-object was obtained. While Newton could deduce the law of gravity from Kepler’s laws of planetary motion, this theory could derive the same from its first principles. In this paper it is shown that Einstein’s Space-Time curvature concept when combined with the effect of the attenuation of dark energy emitted by a mass distorting the Space, we get the famous Schwarzschild – de Sitter metric with a remarkable property of it reducing to flat Space metric in an empty universe. The cosmological constant factor which emerges from our theory becomes a function of the mass distorting the Space.

Negotiating Darwin's Barrier: Evolution Limits Our View of Reality, AI Breaks Through

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:24:15 +0000

Physics is imagined in the human brain which was formed in Darwin's Evolution by responding to certain threats for the survival of our evolutionary ancestors. The struggle to survive prevented us from wasting resources by paying attention to parts of reality that had no survival impact. These parts are of unknown scope and dimension. Can we negotiate this Darwin's barrier? As to reality within our reach, we suffer from imbalance between information absorption capacity and information analysis capacity which resulted in ignoring the overflow of information to match human capacity to make sense of it. Also James Clerk Maxwell suggested that reality has small scale phenomena beyond our human reach. Since we have no brain other than what Darwin equipped us with, this barrier looked unsurmountable. But lo and behold: much as we have built vehicles to carry us further than our biological legs, so we now build artificial intelligence machines that carry us beyond our Darwinist barrier. Physics may transform to building AI capability to ride on. This capability may require a more universal geometry and material representation to fit AI inference engines. Suggesting Depth Unbound Reality Architecture (DURA). AI connects raw data to its conclusion potential, by-passing a storied theory of nature. The objective of physics ahead may be to build theory-replacement AI machines.

Inertial Potential From the Equivalence Principle

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:25:56 +0000

This paper presents an idea to replace special relativity by general relativity applied to an inertial field. The equivalence principle allows us to define an inertial potential equivalent to the gravitational potential. The inertial potential will be further defined using kinetic energy, then the inertial potential will explain the kinematic effect of Hafele-Keating experiment (the experiment where atomic clocks flew around the Earth).

A serious problem appeared, independent to replacing special relativity by general relativity. The time reference chosen by Hafele-Keating (above the North Pole) is correct but unjustified. That time reference is in fact local: local meaning above the Earth, contrary to above the Sun. Indeed the rotation of the Earth around the Sun has to be ignored or this would give different results. A previous study reached a similar conclusion. If locality seems crucial, this paper presents the problem but offers no explanation why it should work that way. This question probably has to be solved to reach a better understanding of time and time reference.

A Connection With Newton's Second Law of (∂^3 x^μ)/(∂x^ν ∂x^ν ∂x^ν )=M 2

Fri, 10 Oct 2025 03:27:44 +0000

I have already reported "A Connection with Newton's Second Law of ∂3xμ∂xν∂xν∂xν=M". This article is the article that I revise contents of "A Connection with Newton's Second Law of ∂3xμ∂xν∂xν∂xν=M", and increased the report about new characteristics. Proposition2: I made clear that there was the lower limit to a dimensional number from establishment of ∂4mμ∂xν∂xν∂xν∂xν=0. Proposition2: I clarified that only one dimension Time with a characteristic unlike other dimensions existed from establishment of ∂4mμ∂xν∂xν∂xν∂xν=0.

Revisiting the Universe Expansion and Dark Energy Problem

Fri, 24 Oct 2025 05:03:18 +0000

The prevailing cosmological consensus supports an accelerating universe driven by dark energy, typically modeled as a cosmological constant. However, ongoing observational tensions—such as the Hubble constant discrepancy—and theoretical inconsistencies, including the cosmological constant problem, call for a fresh conceptual approach. This work introduces a new framework grounded in two core hypotheses: (1) that the Hubble parameter evolves inversely with the age of the universe, and (2) that dark energy dynamically balances gravitational attraction in accordance with Newton’s third law. Under this model, the universe expands at a constant rate (zero acceleration), supported by a continuous inflow of vacuum energy characterized by a universal constant energy rate (ER). The framework reproduces energy density values consistent with quantum field theory at Planck scales and offers a potential resolution to both the cosmological constant and Hubble tension problems. Further analysis shows that the energy rate (ER) can be parameterized using Planck units, naturally leading to quantized interpretations of time and energy. This supports a view of spacetime underpinned by discrete Planck-scale structures and aligns with emerging perspectives from quantum gravity. Preliminary comparisons with observational H(z) data show promising alignment, supporting further investigation into the framework's validity and implications for cosmological theory.

Gravitational Force: Electromagnetic Force Generated by Induced-polarised Charges on the Surface of an Object

Wed, 29 Oct 2025 23:33:56 +0000

Newton's law of gravity is a logical error of circular argument. Mass in the physical sense does not exist. Gravitational force is an electromagnetic force generated by induced-polarised charges on the surface of an object after it has been electrized. Gravity follows the same laws as electromagnetism. Galaxies are a structure of matter, not a pattern of motion. There is no dark matter in galaxies. Galaxies are like magnetic monopoles and repel each other. There is no dark energy in the universe. Objects have only charge properties. There is only electromagnetism in the universe, and electromagnetism manifests itself only on the surfaces of objects. The universe is unified by the electromagnetic force.

Superfluidic Spacetime and Quantized Vortices: A Theoretical Framework for Resolving the Vacuum Energy Discrepancy

Sat, 25 Oct 2025 06:28:06 +0000

In general relativity, the cosmological constant introduces the idea of space containing intrinsic energy. Yet, when dark energy is equated with the vacuum energy density predicted by the Standard Model, the resulting theoretical estimate differs enormously from astronomical observations. Building on superfluid–vacuum concepts and experimental findings of spontaneously generated, long-sustaining quantum vortices in superfluids, the current study theorises that: (1) Persistent pressure–energy fluctuations within a superfluid-like spacetime continuum produce localized, Planck-scale energy maxima that collapse into quantum vortices; (2) These vortices are formed continually and gradually transfer the kinetic energy back into the space foam while undergoing deformation; (3) Every vortex behaves as a rotational field composed of curl and divergent components (as per Helmholtz decomposition), with the divergent element creating an radially propagating energy flux that pushes away nearby vortices; (4) The cumulative effect of such microscopic separations is expressed macroscopically as cosmic expansion, akin to the Casimir effect where vacuum fluctuations exert forces on larger bodies; and (5) Consistent with the space foam model, the space continuum remains in a quivering state, producing oscillatory pressure that interacts with the vortex-distancing process. Theoretical formulations are presented that relate the cosmological constant to the sum of divergent energies from local spins. Incorporating the rates of vortex creation and decay yields a time-dependent cosmological constant, attributing the acceleration of cosmic expansion to the changes in these rates within a pulsating energy–pressure backdrop.

The Charge Radius of a Proton and Neutron

Wed, 29 Oct 2025 23:06:17 +0000

A 2010 study in Nature magazine published experimental results to calculate the charge radius of a proton using Lamb shift in a muonic hydrogen. Although the accuracy of this experiment and the follow up experiment published in Science caused the acceptance of the results as the new value for the charge radius of a proton, it created a puzzle as to why the old experiments with electronic hydrogen resulted in higher values. Many theories and publications have tried to explain this puzzle since then, however, to date, there is no simple mathematical theory or model available to explain the charge radius of a proton. This article presents a model to calculate the charge radius of proton to be 0.840895712 fm which is on par with the current value of 0.84075 fm reported by CODATA (0.017% difference) and supports the accuracy of the muonic experiments.

Use of Machine Learning Combined With UV-VIS-NIR Spectroscopy to Monitor Okra Plant Growth and Development in Controlled Light Environment

Wed, 29 Oct 2025 23:10:12 +0000

Climate change has led growers with uncertainty on crop growth, development, quality and yield. Thus there is a critical need to set up proper tools to help growers follow up their crop during the growth period and ensure better production at the end. In this context we used predictive machine learning models for predictions of Okra development in a controlled lighting environment based on UV-VIS-NIR spectroscopy. Fluorescence and reflectance spectroscopy data was collected from several leaves of Okra grown under different artificial lighting condition, then vegetation spectral indices were computed and used as features for the prediction of four growth and development parameters namely Plant Height (PH), Leaf Number (LN), stem diameter (SD) and Leaf Area Index (LAI). The different trained machine learning models explicitly Linear regression, K-nearest Neighbor, Support Vector Machine, Single Tree, Random Forest, Gradient Boosting, extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) and Categorical Boosting (CatBoost) give good performance in the prediction of PH (R² ranged from 0.93 to 0.97), LN (R² ranged from 0.88 to 0.94), SD (R² ranged from 0.95 to 0.98) with the tree-based algorithm outperformed the others. However, these trained models give poor performance on the prediction of LAI (R² ranged from 0.25 to 0.37). Furthermore, the most responsive features and vegetation spectral indices were also identified using Shapley Additive Explanations. This work aims to help growers to follow up their crops development and moreover intend to be used as a decision tool in an overall horticultural management process to engineer their crop development.

Thermodynamic Unified Field Theory: Emergent Unification of Fundamental Forces via Photrino Composites and Entropy Maximization

Wed, 29 Oct 2025 23:11:45 +0000

This paper introduces a thermodynamic unified field theory (UFT) that derives all physical phenomena from fundamental principles of entropy maximization, positing the photrino—a composite of photons, neutrinos, and anti-neutrinos—as the elementary entity. Grounded in three axioms—entropy maximization for equilibrium, Gibbs free energy linked to photon frequency with helicity encoding, and symmetries governing rotational and translational fluxes—the theory synthesizes quantum mechanics, general relativity, electromagnetism, and cosmology into a cohesive framework. By treating reality as a multi-phase flux sea, it eliminates arbitrary parameters in the Standard Model, deriving particle masses, interactions, and cosmic structures from thermodynamic scales.

Key derivations include the reactive Hessian partial differential equations for flux dynamics, emergent time from angular-to-linear momentum "snaps," and the structural parameter β=5 incorporating gluon degrees of freedom for dimensional stability. The UFT resolves longstanding puzzles, such as the proton spin crisis (via rotational flux contributions), neutrino handedness (helicity signs), cosmological lithium anomaly (flux dilution), Yang-Mills mass gap (finite Hessian minima), and phase transition discontinuities (Gibbs continuity). It reinterprets quantum effects like double-slit interference and entanglement as phase equilibria, and classical laws (e.g., Maxwell's equations, Navier-Stokes) as dilute limits.

Empirical alignments with observations in atomic spectra, QGP experiments, and cosmology are demonstrated, with testable predictions including photrino signatures in neutrino detectors, blueprints for room-temperature superconductors, optimized catalysis, and fusion plasma stability. This paradigm shifts physics toward a thermodynamic foundation, offering practical applications in materials science, biology, and energy while implying a cyclic, multiverse cosmology.

From A 4-Rank Totally Antisymmetric Field Strength to Two Dual Strings in Four Time and Four Space Dimensions

Fri, 14 Nov 2025 06:56:19 +0000

Requiring that 4-rank “electromagnetic” gauge field strength, in four time and four space dimensions ((4+4)-dimensions), satisfies the Grassmann-Pl¨ucker relations, it is shown that by choosing appropriate ansatz (for a basic basis) one can derive two dual strings: One string associated with a (1 + 3)-world, and the other with a (3 + 1)-world. An interesting aspect of this mechanism is that the string in the (1 + 3)-world turns out to be dual to the string in the (3 + 1)-world. It may helpful to clarify the main achievement of this work for a possible non-specialist reader. The central idea is to show that the complete description of our universe in (1 + 3)-dimensions (one time and three space dimensions) may require to assume a mirror dual universe in (3 + 1)-dimensions. So, if an object (3-brane) ‘lives’ in higher dimensional-world that include both the (1 + 3)-world and the mirror (3 + 1)-world, such as the (4 + 4)-dimensional-world, one may be able to show that can be broken into two simpler objects (strings or 1-branes). The key point our achievement is that the hidden symmetry relating these two simpler objects is duality.

Energy Positions of the 6snl (_^1,3)L_0,2 , (L=S,D) and 5s^2 nl(_^2)L_(1⁄(2,5⁄2)) (l=P,F) Doubly Excited States of Ytterbium (Yb I) and Indium (In I) Atoms via Screening Constant per Unit Nuclear Charge Method

Thu, 20 Nov 2025 01:19:59 +0000

In this paper, we present a study of the photoionization of Rydberg series of Ytterbium (Yb I) and Indium (In I) atoms, focusing on the 6sns 1S0 and 6snd 1,3D2 states for Yb and 5s2np 2P1/2 and 5s2nf 2F5/2 states for In. The main objective is to calculate the resonances energies of these states using the Screening Constant per Unit Nuclear Charge (SCUNC) formalism. A semi-empirical method widely used in atomic physics to predict the energies of excited states without requiring the calculation of photoionization cross-sections.