Measuring the One-Way Speed of Light

This paper describes a method for determining the one-way speed of light. My thesis is that the one-way speed of light is NOT constant in a moving frame of reference, and that the one-way speed of light in any moving frame of reference is anisotropic, in that its one-way measured speed varies depending on the direction of travel of light relative to the direction of travel and velocity of the moving frame of reference. Using the disclosed method for measuring the one-way speed of light, a method is proposed for how to use this knowledge to synchronize clocks, and how to calculate the absolute velocity and direction of movement of a moving frame of reference through absolute spacetime using the measured one-way speed of light as the only point of reference.


Introduction
The most abundant particle in the universe is the photon.A photon is a massless quanta emitted by an electron orbiting an atom.A photon travels as a wave in a straight line through spacetime at the speed of light, and collapses to a point when absorbed by an electron orbiting an atom.
There are three commonly proven facts about the speed limit of light: 1) The speed of light is constant in all frames of reference.
2) Nothing in the universe travels faster than the speed of light.
3) Objects gain relativistic mass as they are accelerated.Trying to accelerate an object to the speed of light is impossible as it requires an infinite amount of energy as the mass goes to infinity.Two less known facts encapsulated by Einstein in his theory of Special Relativity published in 1905, are that an object compress in length in the direction of travel as the object's velocity approaches the speed of light.Also, that time itself slows down or dilates within an object that is moving at close to the speed of light.
For example, a clock that is flying through space at 50% the speed of light is compressed in the direction of movement to 86.6% of its length, and time slows by a factor of 1.155, so that 100 minutes as measured by the travelling clock is actually 115.5 minutes as measured by a stationary observer.
Gravity also distorts time and space, as described in Einstein's theory of General Relativity published in 1915.Space is compressed in the direction of the gravitational force, and time slows down as the gravitational attraction increases.In the extreme case of a black hole, to an outside observer, an object crossing the event horizon essentially becomes two dimensional, and all time within the object stops.
The principle of relativity states that you can't perceive these time and space differences inside your own frame of reference, but you can perceive them in an object that is moving through your frame of reference.Although a stationary observer sees a space ship flying past at 50% the speed of light as being compressed in length, and with slow running clocks, inside the space ship, everything appears to be normal.There is no measurable horizontal compression in the direction of travel, and all of physics works as it should, including the measurement of time, distance, and the speed of light.
Even stranger is the claim that without any additional knowledge, you can't tell which frame of reference is moving, and which frame of reference is stationary.Is the spaceship travelling past you, or are you travelling past the space ship?Everything is relative.
No one can explain why space and time vary based on velocity and gravitational forces.... it just IS.

Practical Tests of Relativity:
The idea that time and space are not constant continues to be tested and proven as new technologies are introduced into the world.
For example, GPS satellites have extremely accurate clocks that have to be adjusted for time slowing down due to their fast orbital speed, but also time is speeding up because the satellites are further outside of the Earth's gravity well.GPS clocks also are adjusted for differences in the one-way speed of light caused by the Sagnac Effect.A linear accelerators that smash atoms together works because of relativistic effects that happen when mass is accelerated to 99.9% of the speed of light.We have also discovered that the centres of galaxies are anchored by giant black holes whose gravity potential is so immense that not even light itself can escape, and for any physical object that falls into the black hole's event horizon, all time stops.

What is Time and Space?
According to the International System of Units (SI) definitions: • A second is defined as exactly 9,192,631,770 times the period of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom.
• A meter is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.
• The speed of light in a vacuum is defined as 299,792,458 metres per second.According to Einstein, the only invariant quantity in all frames of reference is the speed of light.Time and Space are variant.This proposition leads to the following logical contradiction: Since the speed of light is defined as distance travelled through space in a unit of time, it would seem that if space and time change based on relativistic effects within a frame of reference, so too should the measured value for the speed of light.
What is mind boggling about the theory of relativity is that space and time change in the exact amount required so that the measured speed of light 'appears' to be the same in all frames of reference.It's a trick of the universe that as we start going faster through space, or as we are drawn into a gravity well, all the laws of physics continue to operate to our perception as though nothing has changed, even though space is clearly compressing, and time is clearly slowing down -as measured by a person outside the moving frame of reference.

Time Dilation
In a frame of reference that is moving at a measurable fraction of the speed of light, or is situated in a gravity well, time slows down.At the speed of light, or behind the event horizon of a black hole, time ceases to exist.A photon exists in a timeless state.
By saying 'time slows down', what we are saying is that the fundamental frequency, at which a climate controlled caesium-133 atom vibrates, slows down.Chemical reactions slow down.Decay rates of fundamental particles slow down.Quantum interactions slow down.Explosive reactions slow down.The orbital speed of an electron around a nucleus slows down.Every measurable or quantifiable physical property of mater that is repetitive in nature slows down.
Another example used to explain time dilation is as follows: There are two twins, one that stays on Earth, and a second that goes into a space ship that travels at 99.9% the speed of light in a big loop, and returns back to Earth 22 years later.On the space-ship's return, the twin that stayed on Earth is biologically 22 years older, but the twin in the space ship is biologically only one year older.

Length Contraction
In the same frame of reference where time slows down, the object compresses in length in the direction of travel.Like a fun-house full of mirrors, only outside observers can perceive that inside the object, time and space have changed.For example, in particle accelerators, where protons are accelerated to 99.9999% the speed of light, the spherical protons gain mass, and behave like a flattened disk when smashing into other objects.

Relativistic Doppler Effect
Photons travel at the speed of light.If a moving object emits a photon of frequency f in the forward direction, that photon travels at the speed of light but at a higher frequency f+.If that same moving object emits a photon of frequency f in the reverse direction, that photon travels at the speed of light, but at a lower frequency f-.There is also a Doppler effect on photons that travel out of gravity well: the photons travel out of the well at the speed of light, but at a reduced frequency.As frequency equates to energy, you can also say that photons gain or lose energy depending on the launch velocity from the object the photos were generated from.
Objects that are travelling away from us emit photons that appear to us as red-shifted (lower frequency/lower energy).Objects that are travelling towards us emit photons that are blue shifted (higher frequency/higher energy).
Photons within a spaceship travel forward at a frequency f+, bounce off the forward wall, and return to our eye at a frequency of f-, but because our eye is also moving forward, we perceive the color as frequency f.In this fashion, light reflecting around a room in a moving object appears to us to behave the same way as light reflecting around a room in a non-moving object.

Measuring Time and Space is Relative
It is possible that a synchronized event that occurs at the same time in one frame of reference may appear to occur at a different unsynchronized times in a second moving frame of reference.Even though this happens, you still can't use this knowledge to tell which frame of reference is stationary, and which frame is moving.

One-Way Speed of Light
To date no successful experiment has conclusively measured the one-way speed of light.
In the real world, the two-way speed of light is physically measured using a light source, a single clock, and a mirror.A light beam is sent in the direction of the mirror at the clock time of 00:00, the light beam reflects back from the mirror, and then arrives back at the starting point, where the clock then stops.The stop time of the clock is the speed of light over that measured distance.The longer the distance used to measure the speed, the more accurate the results.In most cases, the light pulse is sent back and forth a number of times between mirrors to increase the distance of travel before being finally measured.
If the mirror is one half a kilometre away, and the light pulse gets sent, bounces off the mirror, and then returns to the source in some fraction of a second 't' to stop the clock, the two-way speed of light is defined to be one kilometre per fraction of a second 't', which is then normally restated as kilometres per second.
Measuring the speed of light in only one direction is difficult because of clock synchronization problems.You have to synchronized the start and stop clocks.Two side-by-side clocks might start out synchronized, but as you move them away from each other, due to relativistic effects caused by the movement of the second clock, the exact time between the two clocks may not remain the same.
The second issue to overcome measuring the one-way speed of light is you can't use the same trick of bouncing the light pulse back and forth between mirrors to lengthen the measurement time and thus the measurement accuracy.It's a direct line of sight measurement.So your clocks have to be fairly far apart, and super accurate.
Finally, no one believes that the speed of light in one direction is any different than the two-way speed of light.The issue was decided more than 100 years ago, all of science still works, so it's not an issue high up on any-one's to-do list to get excited about.

Can Neutrinos travel faster than the speed of light?
Neutrinos are point like particles that are generated in nuclear environments, like the Sun or in a fission reactor.At any point in time there are billions of low energy neutrinos streaming from the Sun through you and through the Earth.It's actually very difficult to capture a neutrino or know if a neutrino has passed through you because low energy neutrinos don't normally interact with matter.
High energy neutrinos on the other hand rarely make it through the Earth's atmosphere before hitting something, and causing a shower of short lived particles.
One of the scientific questions currently being investigated is at what speed do neutrinos travel?Is it at the speed of light, meaning neutrinos have no mass, or is it at one billionth a percentage less than the speed of light because neutrinos have some infinitesimally small fractional mass?

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The  After frequency synchronization, the 24 hour 1-way Drift charts for both clocks should have an axis Y=0, but be perfectly phase shifted (upside down one to the other).If the 2-way Speed Chart is not a flat line, look for and correct the following problems: Confirm that the distance between the two clocks has not changed.Look for Field effects that might be affecting the apparatus, including gravitation changes, acceleration changes, velocity changes, electromagnetic issues, transmission medium issues, force, centripetal motion, temperature, hardware problems, etc.
After completing the test, the 24 hour Two-Way Speed Chart should be a flat line, and be the same for both clocks.7) Initiate the one-time synchronization sequence.
Define Clock 1 to be the master clock.
Send time from Clock 1 to Clock 2 attached to the tick signal.
On receipt of Clock 1 timing signal, Clock 2 sets it's time to be:

Using Synchronized Clocks to Measure One-way Speed
When using the synchronized clocks to measure the one way speed of light, subtract the start time from the end time, then adjust the resultant measured value by adding/subtracting the plotted relativistic one-way clock drift value for that particular point in time of the Earth's rotation and orbit.

Measuring the Speed of a Neutrino
If you have two perfectly synchronized clocks, and a known distance between them, and you measure the speed of the neutrino on Monday morning at 6:00 AM in a West-East direction, and then check the Start and Stop clocks, the result shows you that the neutrino travelled at the speed of light.
Using the exact same experimental set-up, on Tuesday at 1:06 PM, you do a second test, check the clocks, and the result shows you that the neutrino travelled at 100.010008% the speed of light.What do you do?Go out and re-write the laws of physics, or do you re-check the clocks?You re-check the clocks.
The third test is carried out at 6:00 PM on Thursday.The speed of the neutrino is back to being the speed of light.What do you do now?Publish?
The answer is you need to adjust the measured one-way speed value for the relativistic affect caused by the movement of the Earth through spacetime.This is a measured value calculated as you synchronized your clocks.The values cycle through a 24 hour period, and a 12 month period.

My educated guess is that…
At High Noon, neutrinos travel in the West-East direction faster than the speed of two-way light, but after adjusting for one-way relativity effects, they still travel at the speed of light.
At the Dead of Night, neutrinos travel in the West-East direction slower than the speed of two-way light, but after adjusting for one-way relativity effects, they still travel at the speed of light.

In Conclusion
There is some fuzzy thinking left over from 1905 that I think needs to be cleaned up.
For starters, the statement that "Light travels at the same speed in all frames of reference" actually has a double or triple meaning that needs to be clarified.1) There is only one speed of light.Independent of all frames of reference, this is a universal constant value that never changes.
2) The two-way measured speed of light in a moving frame of reference is also a constant, and matches the universal constant speed of light due to relativistic effects accounted for by the Lorentz factor.In a moving frame of reference, time slows down, and the frame compresses in the direction of motion.
3) Measurements of light speed are always done two-way because no one has figured out a way to synchronize clocks to accurately and reproducibly measure one-way speed of light.Any light speed reference in scientific literature should be modified to say: "The two-way speed of light…."This is an important clarification, as it impacts the definition of the meter itself.
4) Finally, there is a distinct possibility, but not yet a proven fact, that the one-way speed of light in a moving frame of reference is NOT a constant.
The concept of Simultaneity is also fuzzy, as it's actually a little difficult to construct a thought experiment where the observer visualizes seeing a lightning strike 'event' before they see the lightning strike 'photons'.At best, all you can do is work backwards after seeing the photons, and surmise as to what time and place in space the event took place.This approach hardly leads to a strong understanding of the underlying behaviour of Simultaneity.
Defining a fixed frame of reference for time and space to plot light behaviour provides a starting point for identifying and resolving Simultaneity logic errors.I think it's fairly obvious that if a lightning event occurs somewhere in space within one frame of reference, then that event should be considered to occur simultaneously in all other overlapping frames of reference.In other words, there isn't a skip in time between a single event occurring in one frame of reference, and a second equivalent event occurring inside a second overlapping frame of reference at some different point in time.Otherwise, to my way of thinking, there's a logical hole to be exploited, and time travel should be possible.There's also the issue of conservation of energy to be considered.
I'm not arguing with the conclusions that have already been drawn with regard to Simultaneity, but I think it's important to point out that the explanation given for the effect may be wrong.The logic problems are resolved when you introduce the possibility that the one-way speed of light is not a constant, but instead behaves Relativistically.
The one-way speed of light can be 1000's of times faster than the two-way speed of light in a frame of reference travelling at greater than 90% the speed of light.
Neutrinos can travel at greater than the two-way speed of light if they are travelling in the opposite direction of the frame of reference's direction of motion.To be able to detect neutrinos travelling faster than the speed of light, the frame of reference needs to be moving at a measurable fraction of relativistic speed (equal to or greater than 30 KM/sec), and the neutrino needs to be moving in the opposite direction to the frame of reference movement.
There is still more that can be learned from the photon.There is such a thing as absolute space and absolute time as imagined by Newton and refuted by Einstein.The photon knows its exact velocity through absolute space.All we have to do is properly measure the one-way behaviour of a photon, and we can walk ourselves back to finding Dead-Stop in absolute time and space.The photon also provides us with a fixed reference from which to deduce from within a moving frame of reference, the exact direction and velocity of that frame through spacetime.
The method used to measure the one-way speed of light also leads to a solution for how to synchronize two clocks.Einstein synchronization is adjusted to include the Relativistic clock-drift.

Finally…
I understand that the ideas presented here go against 100 years of classical thinking, but if the proposed experiments in this paper work as predicted, and the one-way speed of light is proven to be measurable and variable, and can be used to determine Dead-stop in spacetime, it does move classical theory closer to being united with quantum theory, as quantum theory requires there to be an absolute spacetime.
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delay required to process the signal + 1/2 total time for 2-Way light as measured by Clock 2 +/-The measured drift value for that particular point in time of the Earth's rotation.8) Clock 1 continues to monitor Clock 2's time Send the time from Clock 2 back to Clock 1 in the tick signal.On receipt of Clock 2 timing signal, Clock 1 calculates Clock 2 time as follows: + Calculated nanosecond delay required to process the signal + 1/2 total time for 2-way light as measured by Clock 1 +/-The measured drift value for that particular point in time of the Earth's rotation.9) FINALLY, Clock 1 continues to compare Clock 1 time, and calculated Clock 2 time, saving the difference in a separate synchronization drift table.If the clocks are perfectly synchronized, this value should always be zero.Note: This is the Einstein synchronisation technique, modified by adding/subtracting measured relativistic one-way clock drift for that particular point in time of the Earth's rotation and orbit. Figure

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