A Historical Perspective of Municipal Solid Waste Management and Recycling System in Japan: Learning for Developing Countries

The need for infectious disease control resulted in the establishment of a waste administration system in Japan in the early twentieth century. The unresolved sanitation problems in major cities arose from the narrow range of action by municipalities that activated the collaboration of stakeholders in 1954. The emergence of pollution problems from factories resulted in the separate treatment of industrial waste laid the cornerstone for the modern municipal solid waste (MSW) management system in 1970. The advancements reached in waste collection and transportation increased collection coverage put the public health importance of waste under control. The development of low-pollution environmental facilities reduced the urgency of living environment protection. The priority factor was changed from waste volume reduction to air pollution control and then to the efficiency of energy recovery in setting up waste incineration plants. The waste generation reduction became the priority policy when the need for resource management emerged in the 1990s. Since then, both the MSW generation and the final disposal amount have been declining, increasing in the remaining landfill lifetime. The recycling and bulky waste reprocessing facilities have been scaled-up, increasing recycling and recovery rate. The system has been evolved towards waste prevention through the earlier identification, recognition, and timely response to the development needs. This paper presents both the physical components and governance aspects in the historical development of MSW management and recycling systems in Japan, which can be used to outline the current and future needs of waste management planning in developing countries.


Introduction
The world generates around two billion tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) annually, with at least 33% of that extremely conservatively not managed in an environmentally safe manner (Kaza et al., 2018). High-income countries generate about 34% of the world's waste; however, the total amount of waste generated in low-income countries is expected to increase beyond threefold by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018). There is a vast discrepancy in the waste management practices between developed and developing countries. About 93% of waste is openly dumped in low-income countries, where only 2% in high-income countries (Kaza et al., 2018). The developed countries have succeeded in diverting a more substantial proportion of MSW away from landfills (UNEP, 2018). In contrast, the developing world is predominantly preoccupied with collection and removal services to date (Marshall & Farahbakhsh, 2013).
The establishment of a sustainable system in waste management could not be achieved overnight; it takes time. The developed countries reached the current level of advancement through evolution for decades as growth from low-income to middle-and high-income levels, their waste management situations also evolve (Kaza et al., 2018). It is challenging to apply the current methodologies of developed countries to the practice of developing countries due to the difference in their development needs (Marshall & Farahbakhsh, 2013). However, the steps made to their existing systems can be used as a learning experience by developing countries. Hence, there should be well-documented evidence to describe what to learn from their experiences.
Japan is among the environmentally advanced nations with a reliable system for waste management in the world. In the current state, the waste management practice of the country consists of complex tasks that can demonstrate the advancement of art and science in the field. Nevertheless, before several decades, Japan experienced problems similar to those facing today's developing countries. The context of their historical evolution can best examine these problems as it is part of this history that the current and future perspective of MSW management in developing countries may be most clearly understood. Despite studies having been conducted on the development of the overall waste management and recycling systems in Japan (Amemiya, 2018;Hara & Yabar, 2012), still more is needed to identify the best experiences specific to MSW. Therefore, this study intends to describe the development in physical components and governance aspects of the MSW management and recycling system in Japan from past to recent. Investigating the historical problems and its countermeasures implemented by Japan's MSW management system can be used to outline and plan for the current and future needs of developing countries.

Methodology
In this paper, the integrated sustainable waste management (ISWM) analytical framework was used to present the historical evolution of the MSW management system in Japan. The ISWM distinguishes three dimensions for analysis of waste management and recycling systems: the practical and technical elements of the waste system, sustainability aspects, and the various group of stakeholders involved (Anschütz et al., 2004;Wilson et al., 2012). The ISWM framework comprised of physical components and governance features of waste management. The physical components include; public health, environment, and resource management, whereas the governance aspects include inclusivity, financial sustainability, and sound institution, and pro-active policies (Wilson et al., 2012). For this study, both historical and descriptive analyses were employed to discuss all the physical components and the governance aspects of MSW management.
A review of official documents published by the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (2005,2012,2014) was made to understand the historical evolution of the system. The trends in the development of MSW generation, collection, recycling, treatment, final disposal, and financial sustainability were described quantitatively by using the annual environmental statistical data gained from the Ministry of the Environment of Japan (2018) and the Japan Industrial Waste Information Center (2019). The per capita Gross National Income (GNI) calculated based on the Atlas method was extracted from the online open data source of the World Bank (2020).
Comparative analysis of MSW management in Japan, Germany, the UK, and the USA was made based on the data of indicator indices used by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2017) to show the relative status of the development achieved. The progress towards waste prevention was also evaluated according to the waste management hierarchy by using the most recent available data for the four countries. Finally, the historical problems encountered by Japan's MSW management system were summarized, and a conclusion was made on critical success factors for consideration by developing countries.

Evolution of Municipal Solid Waste Management System in Japan
There was no formal waste management system in Japan until the modernization started in the early twentieth century. During this time, the waste was treated and disposed of by the waste generators themselves or private waste treatment companies. The management activity implemented by the generators and the private companies was not enough to prevent unsanitary conditions raised from waste disposal sites.
Consequently, it became essential to maintain the cleanness of the entire cities and protect the health of the public at large. In response to the need, the government enacted the Waste Cleaning Act in 1900 with the purpose of improvement of public health. The Act defined the collection and disposal of waste as the obligation of municipalities and put the private companies under their follow-up. The enactment of this law was the first step in the establishment of a waste administration system.
During the post-war period, the amount of waste became increasing as a result of economic growth and urbanization. The sharp increment of urban waste put the municipalities under stress due to the limited human power and technology capacity. The narrow range of action by municipalities resulted in the disposal of waste in rivers, oceans, and streets, which continued to cause unsanitary conditions. Consequently, it became essential to call the assistance of national and local governments and the residents to collaborate to cope with the situation. The Public Cleansing Act was enacted in 1954 to develop systems for the division of roles and collaboration of stakeholders. Besides the mandate of the municipalities, the Act obligated the national and prefectural governments to provide financial and technological support and residents to cooperate. This measure was considered as a Reform in the waste administration system. supermarkets and convenience stores. The development of mass production and consumption-based economy affects both the quality and quantity of waste generated in urban systems. There was a manifestation of pollution problems resulted from hazardous waste generated from rapid industrialization. Even if there was good progress, those hazardous waste generated by industries were still managed with municipal waste. Consequently, it became essential to distinguish and manage waste according to their nature and source.
Accordingly, the Waste Management Act (also called Waste Management and Public Cleansing Act) was enacted in 1970 to specify responsibilities and standards. By distinguishing between industrial waste and municipal waste, the Act defined the management of municipal waste as the obligation of municipalities as had been done previously, while newly mandating waste-generating business operators to deal with industrial waste. The Act introduced the importance of protection of the living environment in addition to public health. The enactment of this law laid the cornerstone for the development of the basic system in waste management; thus, the history of the modern MSW management system started here.
The Waste Management Act (Ministry of the Environment of Japan, 2001) defined MSW as waste other than industrial waste. It includes waste generated from households and urban activities (public spaces, commerce, and transport). The Act also clearly stated that the portion of industrial waste that has similar nature shall manage with MSW. This statement makes the definition in line with that of the UN-Habitat (2009). The municipalities (i.e., self-governing bodies of cities, towns, and villages) have the responsibility for the planned collection and proper treatment of waste under their jurisdiction. The portion of MSW is further segregated as 'specially controlled municipal waste,' characterized as waste that is explosive, toxic, infectious, or of nature otherwise harmful to human health or the living environment. For specially controlled waste, stricter controls for collection, transportation, and disposal are applied, in addition to the usual controls used to normal MSW.

Waste Generation
It is generally known that waste generation is influenced by an increase in income, population growth, and urbanization (Kaza et al., 2018). Similarly, in Japan, MSW generation has been affected by economic growth, income, population growth, urban population concentration, and change in consumption habits. The production of MSW continued to increase over time until 2000 when it hit its peak ( Figure 1). The waste generation increased especially sharply during the rapid economic growth and the bubble economy period (the 1960s to early 1990s). The increment was more than threefold from 1955 to 1970 (6.2 million tonnes in 1955 to 28.1 million tonnes in 1970). It was due to the fact waste from rapidly increasing industrial processes was considered as municipal waste. Also, it was due to rapid urbanization as there was a massive migration from rural to urban areas during the 1950s (Hara & Yabar, 2012). The rate of increment reduced to 41% from 1971 to 2000 (38.8 million tonnes in 1971 to 54.8 million tonnes in 2000) partly due to the fact waste generation increase at a faster rate for income changes at lower income levels than at high-income levels (Kaza et al., 2018).   Vol. 13,No. 3; e local citizens ment of the P based on the w f the cost of b cy waste-to-en essing, septic t ing waste disp rce of revenue sage fees (char c bag is used a reasing since 2 sed (Figure 9). rom general bu .62 trillion yen 1982-2014 in J nses and night ts and proces construction the collection maintenance, pplies, outsou am was increa llion yen in 19 the replaceme he developmen t its peak at ar n (Table 1). In Japan t soil ssing, costs and , and rcing asing 82 to nt of nt of round the Waste Cleaning Act institutionalized the waste collection and treatment efforts by introducing new responsibility in the governmental administration structure. The process of institutionalization further enhanced by another legal instrument enacted in 1954. The Public Cleansing Act made widens the scope of formal institutions from local governments to prefectural and national levels. Here informal sectors also strengthened by ensuring the involvement and defining their role.  (2000) • Construction Materials Recycling Act (2000) • Food Recycling Act (2000) • Revision of the Waste Management Act (2000) • Green purchasing Act (2000) • Act to Promote of Proper Treatment of PCB Waste • End-of-Life Vehicles Recycling Act (2002) • Act to remove of Environmental Problems Caused by Industrial Waste Act (2003) • The revised Waste Management Act (2003,2006,2010) • Small Home Appliance Recycling Act (2013) Source: Ministry of the Environment of Japan, 2014 The Waste Management Act came with more advanced responsibility for the private business operating companies to manage industrial waste independently. Here, the priority for waste management policy also shifted from public health to environmental protection. This shift initiated the establishment of the Environment Agency in 1971 to create a centralized system for environmental administration and promote and implement pollution-related laws. The Agency was later developed to the current Ministry of the Environment in 2001. At the city level, the Environmental Management Bureau has opened to coordinate the waste management efforts (Widowati, 2014). In response to the need for a sound material-cycle society, other governmental sectors, including the Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry, also started to deal with waste management issues (Lacoste & Chalmin, 2007).
The efficiency of MSW management practices can mainly be attributed to cooperation between the national and local governments (Table 2). Annually waste management data is collected and aggregated in a comprehensive database that both national and local governments use to develop plans, strategies, and policies. Members of the public and academic organizations also use the data to evaluate the system and provide feedback. The data can also be used by municipalities to compare their plans and outcomes with those of other local governments that have similar economic and demographic profiles. Several mechanisms allow local governments to report feedback to the national government, including through the annual meeting of the Japan Waste Management Association (JWMA), which includes 585 municipal governments, and the National Governors' Association (Kaza et al., 2018).

Comparative Analysis
The establishment of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1984, the Pollution Prevention Act in 2002, and the Resource Conservation Challenge in 2004 have led to the development of a waste management policy centering on resource conservation and pollution prevention in the USA (Sakai et al., 2011). In the European Union (EU) countries, the most notable characteristic of the waste management system is the promotion of 3R policies in parallel with waste management regulations (Sakai et al., 2011). The establishment of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive in 1994, the Landfill Directive in 1999, and the Waste Incineration Directive in 2000 provide a legal framework within which the waste management in each member country is regulated (Sakai et al., 2011;Zhang et al., 2010).
In Japan, the MSW generation is low when compared to the EU countries such as Germany, the UK, and the USA ( Figure 10A). In 2015 the per capita generation was 0.94 kg per day, whereas 1.73 kg per day in Germany, 1.31 kg per day in the UK, and 2 kg per day in the USA. Amemiya (2018) reported that in 2014 the waste discharge rate, including industrial waste, per nominal GDP in Japan is lower than Germany but higher than the UK. MSW generation reduction is also seen as higher in Japan. Compared to 1995, generation reduced 16.7% in Japan, 4.2% in the UK, whereas it increased by 0.64% in Germany, 0.27% in the USA in 2015. It seems that the current progress is against the World Bank`s projection of the increment of per capita waste generation in high-income countries by 19 percent by 2050 (Kaza et al., 2018).
MSW recycling and composting is relatively low in Japan ( Figure 10B). It can be due to the priority given to the recycling of industrial waste ahead of municipal waste (Lacoste & Chalmin, 2007). However, the rate of development in recycling is still higher in Japan next to the UK in the last twenty years. Waste incineration rate is higher in Japan, where energy recovery is practiced. Because of the large number of small scale incinerators, the amount of waste used for energy recovery in Japan is lower than in Germany and more significant than in the o Identification of the development needs in waste management: several socio-economic and environmental factors were influencing the system. The public health, protection of the environment, the need for resource management was among the identified leading factors.
o Prioritization based on the relative urgency of the needs: until the start of rapid economic growth, the priority policy was public health protection. During the rapid economic growth and the bubble economy period, the priority was shifted to living environment protection. From the 1990s, resource conservation gained better attention.
o Provision of an adequate institutional and legal framework for waste management needs: the provision of legal and institutional support for waste management started in response to public health needs. Several laws and waste-specific regulations were enacted afterward, where the purposes of the policies were framed within the priority needs.
o Investing in waste management: the waste sector had been supported in terms of finance, technology, and human resource development, subsidy for the construction of environmental facilities, and public-private partnerships were encouraged in technology and innovations.
o Ensuring participation: understanding, participation, and cooperation among the residents and government bodies were critical in solving disputes over waste management. The public involvement was enhanced through environmental education and awareness creation programs.
o Monitoring the effectiveness of waste management programs: there were a supervision and feedback mechanism between the stakeholders. Members of academic and research organizations were encouraged to evaluate the system and provide feedback.
o Tracking the future emerging needs and improvements: the system could trace all the emerging development needs which arose through time. The climate change issue from greenhouse gas emissions, dioxins from incinerators, the severe shortage of landfills, natural resource constraints, energy shortage following the Fukushima disaster, and increasing public interest and sensitivity regarding environmental issues are among the emerged waste management needs in Japan.