Comparative Study of Linguistic Features Used in the Inaugural Speeches of American Presidents

Language is a very useful and powerful tool for communication and especially in political discourse it is very significant. During a political speech the leader tries to express, declare, commit, emphasize or motivate the listeners by using one’s ideology and power. Political personalities speak in different modes and tones and they announce their planning and aim to keep all aspects under their control and reduce the worry of the people. The aim of this paper is to identify the linguistic features used in the inaugural speeches of selected American Presidents and to analyze their functions using Critical Discourse Analysis theory proposed by Fairclough and the theory of Persuasion postulated by Aristotle. Researchers selected inaugural speeches of George W. Bush and Barack Obama. The study was an attempt to relate the inaugural discourse to the discursive social processes and to find covert ideology and power factors in the speeches. The findings revealed significant differences among the different linguistic features, discursive practices and rhetoric devices used in inaugural speeches of the two US presidents.


Introduction
Language is the most important source of communication. People express their ideas, beliefs, ideologies and opinions through it. Language is a tool through which human beings play their roles socially and structure relationship of power in the society. A lot of research has been carried out to undergo linguistic and pragmatic analysis of communication done by celebrities and common masses. Critical Discourse Analysis is also an approach which is being used to study formal and informal aspects of language and their use in society.

Background of the Study
According to John Fowles (1963) "the meaning of a word in a language depends on the angle at which it is held". Different researcher (White, 2005;Jalilifar & Savaedi, 2012;Helander, 2014) analyzed political speeches for various purposes and perspectives but as per implication of theoretical frameworks and attention to evaluate language of political addresses there are only a few studies in record. Helander (2014) analyzed and compared alignments in the addresses of Churchill (1939) and Blair (2003). He applied Martin and White's (2005) Appraisal Theory to investigate the use of positive and negative judgments in the speeches. Jalilifar & Savaedi (2012), studied the political strategies used by Iranian and American presidential candidates during elections. Applying appraisal framework of Martin and Rose (2003), the researchers examined attitude of candidates in their speeches.
Every four years, millions of Americans elect a new president who takes oath and delivers inaugural speech to give new ideology and policy according to which the scenario of the world agreements and political relationships changes. The study of president's inaugural speech gets the attention of politicians, historians and the interest of linguists. The study selected the first inaugural speeches of President George W. Bush and President Barack Obama. The nature of primary data gave way to structure pertinent research framework. The framework was devised by using Fairclough's model and Aristotle's theory of persuasion.

Statement of the Problem
United States of America is an important and powerful country which has a huge effect in economic and political changes in the globe. Any American President who is elected by the people every four years gives the policies of how to handle different issues nationally and internationally. They give their policy in their inaugural addresses. They try to show their power and ideology through different linguistic devices and strategies. All the governments and politicians of the world remain conscious about the policy given by the American President. Politicians, scholars, editors, TV anchors and column writers study the linguistic features and linguistic devices used in the American President's speech and interpret them. As USA had a big impact in Pakistan's politics and economy so the researcher was keen to study inaugural speeches delivered by different American Presidents. There were many researches and analysis of discourse done in the past in which the researchers tried to explain the hidden meanings and ideologies. But works on political discourse and especially on inaugural speeches were a few. If we see this situation in Pakistan, here work on inaugural discourse or speech is quite less and only a few linguists have worked on this topic. Some researchers did work on inaugural addresses but not of the presidents of United States of America. This study is an attempt to discuss linguistic and pragmatic features used in the inaugural speeches of US presidents. The world media and statesmen rate and relate inaugural addresses of any US president in their own way to promote their own political agenda. The study underwent the forensic and linguistic analysis of the diction, rhetoric and style used in these inaugural addresses.

Research Questions
The present study endeavored to answer the questions which were as follows: 1) What types of linguistic devices are used in the Inaugural speeches of George Bush and Barak Obama?
2) How do the linguistic devices used in American Presidents' Inaugural speeches reflect power and ideology factors?
3) What types of linguistic functions are used in the American Presidents' inaugural speeches? 4) What is the usefulness of linguistic functions which are used in the American Presidents' inaugural speeches?
5) To what extent linguistic and pragmatic markers are similar among different speeches delivered by Republican and Democratic Presidents?

Literature Review
Language is an important tool for communication and expression of thoughts. In a successful and effective communication, people use different lexical items and rhetoric devices which make their speech persuasive and meaningful for listeners. When politicians want to convince common masses, they use different linguistic features and rhetorical devices that play vital role in the transfer of message from the speaker to the listener. The main aim of a linguistic study is to study and uncover the intentions of the political personality and to analyze the linguistic features which are used to convey the ideology. The linguistic elements in the political language affect the behavior and attitude of the people. Politico-linguistics consists of sociolinguistics, CDA, textual linguistics, pragmatics and semiotics. Political speech performs many functions as it has its own themes and criteria. Political speeches can be studied through culture and history (Fairclough, 1995).

Discourse
According to Van Dijk's (1977, p. 3), discourse is text in context, seen as "data that is liable for empiric analysis". Interactions among people enable them to discuss, explain and defend their ideologies and resultantly these can alter or support our social beliefs. Ideologies include beliefs related to the specific traits of any group like identity, social status, wishes and objectives, relationship with other groups and own atmosphere (Van Dijk, 2000. It has already been stated that discourse is vast than "text" (Fairclough, 1989, p. 27 which is positive is related to the values and it shows or expresses them in the speech. The negative kind is used to keep these values hidden in the speech. It is an important decision which a politician makes that how to express and deliver a sketch or portrait of his / her personality. Although a politician has many means to do this task but everything cannot provide such persuasion as the speaker desires. The speaker or the political leader should have some techniques in his / her mind to get persuasion. The speakers should know how to communicate their ideas about their personality which should prove a true reflection of it. Humor can also be a technique to show one's personality which can be used to reduce tense atmosphere and to provide a positive outlook of one's personality which can impress the audience. Humor expresses the emotions and warm passions which the speaker has in his /her heart and mind. The friends share their laughter and the distance between the audience and the orator decreases if the orator laughs with the audience. But if the speakers want to use humor in the speech as a tool of rhetoric then they should know its management. If the speaker cannot manage it with responsibility, the audience can think that he / she is a non-serious person and they will not have any regard for the speaker. It is also important that the orator should not try to ridicule at them but laugh with the audience or the participants of the rhetoric. If the orator tries to laugh at the listeners then they will feel it as their insult.

Pathos
Emotions are index of one's personality. They can also be used for persuasion and as a technique or method of rhetoric. Such rhetorical devices attest the statements and can be regarded as a testimony model. It is mostly thought as expressing pathos and logos also. It depends on the use of such models what effects these models produce. For example people use some products and in advertisements show that the product is giving the intended results and in this way they attest the benefits of the product and presenting a model of attestation for the public. Such techniques and devices are a good way to persuade the people and these give them no chance to suspect the suggestions or prescription. This method or technique manipulates the people and inspires them. However this device is losing the power because it is being used excessively in many areas. So everything should be presented in a way which attracts the emotions of the audience.

Logos
It is related to the statements and argument which are used to achieve the goal of persuasion. When the orator tries to tell something to the people or wants to deliver any information then the arguments should be organized in a sequence and their structure is very important if the orator wants to get persuasion through it. Personality, stand point, emotions and passions are important but if convincing arguments are not present in the speech then the goal of persuasion cannot be achieved. These convincing or logical arguments or statements are called logos. Now a day, the politicians use many rhetorical devices and among them ethos is very important. The speaker should be reliable and credible. If he does not have this ability then his oratory or skill of speech is useless. Without character and personality the audience cannot adhere to the arguments or view point of the speaker. If we compare George W. Bush and Al Gore in the elections of 2000, we can see that Al Gore was in better position as he was the vice president of Bill Clinton and their government had good economy, low crime rates and the people were satisfied. Also as a speaker Bush was not so convincing and everyone thought that Al Gore would win easily. Al Gore was a better candidate and stronger on paper than Bush. He had experience and training. But Bush won the election only because of his ethos. He could not deliver good arguments but he expressed his personality well and Al Gore could not do so and his knowledge, authority and experience failed to reach the goal. Bush became more credible than Al Gore in the eyes of the voters. The audience do not trust a candidate if they feel that the speaker is concealing something from them. The more responsible and reliable politician cannot lose trust in the audience and also he presents his personality with sincerity. This sincerity and authentic character is ethos.

Use of Rhetoric for Persuasion in the Political Discourse
In rhetorical analysis, linguists and researchers try to find or recognize the person who is the speaker, the personality, ideology and party etc. Rhetoric also involves the specific tone, words, sentences and style of the speaker. The analysis of rhetoric includes the topic of a discourse, clues in the speech about the topic, and its expression. Every good politician is persuasive and every speech focuses on the nature of the occasion and the level of the audience. Personal pronouns can also be used to express ethos. Significantly, it is the best way to express one's personality to the participants of the discourse (Beard, 2000). "I" and "we" as singular and plural pronouns can help the orator in taking the responsibility and sharing the responsibility with the participants for any argument or statement. Modal auxiliaries help in representing the speaker's personality. If the speakers use such modal auxiliaries which show the difference between them and the audience then the audience will have a bad impact of their personalities.

Research Methodology
Politicians use different political strategies and techniques to persuade the audience and they struggle for power to put their social, political and economic ideologies. Furthermore, the role of language in political actions and in modifications of the thinking of the people cannot be falsified. This research is qualitative in approach as qualitative approaches investigate basic things like what, when, where and how the problem is found and why it appears. The researchers analyzed the data using Fairclough's CDA model and Aristotle's Persuasion Theory to study power and ideology relationship in the speech by examining linguistic features in the presidential inaugural addresses.

Data of Presidential Inaugural Address
Transcriptions of the inaugural speeches of George W. Bush and Barack Obama were downloaded from the official website of the White House. Different articles about these speeches from well reputed media sources like CNN, BBC, The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times of USA, The Dawn and The NEWS of Pakistan were studied to get real understanding and impact of the speech and then the address was analyzed.

Procedure
The study analyzed and interpreted ideological aspects of American Presidential inaugural addresses and the following procedure has been adopted:

Comparison of Transcripts and Videos
The transcripts of the inaugural addresses were taken from the official website of the White House www.whitehouse.gov/administration/president

Selection of Paragraphs from the Speeches
The speeches were read thoroughly and important paragraphs which were related to the ideology, power and techniques to hold power and to persuade the audience were highlighted and selected.

Analysis of the Data
The sentences, clauses and words are counted and sentence structure was identified and analyzed to uncover the hidden ideology and social functions. Linguistic features were identified and put in the tables and then their social and ideological functions were studied.

Main Features of the Inaugural Addresses
The researchers made a framework on the basis of CDA theory of Fairclough and Aristotle's persuasion theory for description, interpretation and explanation of the inaugural address delivered by the American presidents. The inaugural address was carefully studied and the following items were analyzed. All the features related to the language like keywords, pronouns and modal verbs were described and analyzed using tables and charts which were created in MS Excel and MS Word.

Findings and Discussion
Keeping in view the established framework, the findings revealed how American presidents responded to and dealt with the political, financial and economic issues of USA and of the world. Their words and style hovered around the diverse aspects of the political discourse were covered over the crisis and adequate policies aimed to overcome.

President George W. Bush's Inaugural Address
The first inaugural address was delivered by President George Walker Bush on January 20, 2001. He won a controversial election against Al Gore. During his inaugural address thousands of demonstrators were protesting in Washington DC as they thought the decision of the Supreme Court was unjust. George W. Bush as the 43rd president of the United States of America delivered the inaugural address. The focus of his address was on unity of the nation and civilized behaviour so that the people would be motivated to stand together against the challenges of the time. The inaugural address of President George W. Bush was divided into twenty four sub-sections codified in term paragraph. Each paragraph had different topics and purposes which were deeply studied and analyzed as under.

The Main Topic and Title of the Speech
Paragraph number 6, 12, 15, 16, 18 and 23 were related to the main theme or main topic of the speech. They described the message of duty, civility, unity, justice, responsibility, service, American promise and courage.
The main topic of this inaugural address was a call and plea for unity of the nation. Bush called it the greatest thing and used the words as "grandest ideal" which shows his promise to American people. Bush told that they might not vote for him but still he would serve them because he was the president of the whole of the United States of America. He said, "You may not have voted for me but I intend to serve as your president." It seemed that the speech was a sermon rather than a political address to the nation. He told in paragraph 6 that whether the people were opponents or his companions they should be united to fulfill the American promise and to achieve American ideal of a civilized world which is based on equality, justice, peace and prosperity for all. In paragraphs 11 and 12 he tried to boost up the moral of the nation saying that Americans had a national courage which they kept during the time of depression and during wars. They should fight against apathy and ignorance by reviewing the schools. He insisted on reforming the social security, health care and tax system which would boost up the economy and the next generation would not struggle against many problems. He said, "We will reform social security and Medicare..... reduce taxes to recover the momentum of our economy.." In paragraphs 15 and 16 he urged that Americans should show that they were compassionate and according to their conscience the poverty of the nation was unworthy for them. All the Americans were equally American. No-one was stranger and they should eradicate the suffering and hopelessness of the poor ones because if some people were poor it would diminish all of the American people. He told that the government was aware of its responsibilities regarding safety, health, civil rights and the education system.
He declared that the people who belonged to any religion were safe and free in America. They could freely go to their places of worship. However they should preach humanity. In paragraph 23 which was the second last paragraph of the speech president Bush urged the nation that to fulfill all the promises they should continue persistent efforts to make America generous and just and their lives were having dignity and honour. He said, "Never untiring..... We renew that purpose today."

Transitions Analysis
Transitivity or transition or move in the lines or paragraphs of the speech was according to the purpose of the speaker. The main transitions or moves in the inaugural address by George W. Bush were as follows:

Salutations
As it was the tradition the new president George W. Bush thanked the former president Bill Clinton and his opponent in the presidential election Vice president Al Gore for their decency and services to the nation. He recognized the old and ancient traditions of the United States of America and affirmed them. He started with a happy note that transfer of power and office was not a happy event or occasion in other countries of the world but it was quite pleasant and peaceful in America since its independence. Paragraph 1 was related to the salutations in his speech. He said, "With a simple oath we affirm old traditions and make new beginnings."

Making Promises
George W. Bush made some promises and pledges with the nation using simple and clear vocabulary which represented his patriotism, love for the nation, and enthusiasm to make the nation united, civilized, strong and prosperous. Paragraphs 6, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17 and 19 of the inaugural address described his promises and pledges to the nation. He declared in paragraph 6 that he with the help of the people would not let the opponents and the people who had hidden enmity and prejudices and tried to increase the differences and distances among the citizens. Everyone who was living in America should know that they were not only sharing the continent but they were also in one country so they were one nation. He said, "And this is my solemn pledge I will work to build a single nation of justice and opportunity." In paragraph 9 he talked about a new commitment to fulfill the American promise using civilized behavior, compassion, character, courage and determination. He gave the principle of civility and characteristics of a civilized society which were good will, forgiveness, fairness and respect for others. In paragraph 12 he talked about national courage and asked the people to incorporate the qualities of good citizenship in the schools and eradicate laziness and ignorance from the society. In paragraph 13 and 14, he declared his resolve that they as a nation would reform important services like social security, medical facilities and restoration of economy by reducing taxes. He promised to recover these things to provide true reward of the efforts to the American people who were working for the prosperity of the country.
In paragraph 14, he talked about the security of the country. He gave the hint that America would fight against Iraq to eliminate its weapon of mass destruction. He called Iran and other rigid thinking countries as enemies of liberty. He affirmed that America remained involved in the world affairs for the balance of power and this favored the freedom in the world. It was an announcement that America would continue to attack other countries for the defense of its interests and allied countries. He pledged that they would fight against aggression and the people who had bad faith like Al Qaeda and other terrorist organizations.
He said, "We will confront weapons of mass destruction...... We will meet aggression and bad faith with resolve and strength". In paragraph 17 he pledged that he would lead the nation to a goal that they would help the victims of poverty and helpless people.
In paragraph 19, he promised to lead the nation by the principles of civility and he would incorporate the golden values of the past to safeguard the present of the nation.

Appeals
Inaugural address by George W. Bush was mostly an appeal to the nation to stand with the government to fight against the challenges of time like poverty, inequality, ignorance and declining values. In paragraph 4 he appealed for the incorporation of equality and respect for others because everyone who was born in America or migrated to it was important for the society. In paragraph 6 he appealed for unity and serious struggle and work for the nation. In paragraph 11 he called for adaptation of the principle of civility. In the following paragraphs till the end of the speech he called the nation for the duty to reclaim schools in America, to make the defense strong and to eradicate poverty. He asked the nation to be responsible citizens and start serving others and began this service from the neighborhood. He appealed them to continue this work along with him without tiring and yielding.

Religious References
George W. Bush was a staunch religious person who used religious quotations in his speeches. He also showed his love for religion in his inaugural address by giving reference of God, wounded traveler on the road to Jericho, acts of God from the Bible, saint's quotation for love and sympathy for others and an angel who was directing the riding in the wind and directing the storm. He ended his address on the prayer for the blessings of God to the people and for America. He wanted to show his character and to persuade the people to trust him.

Use of Pronouns
Use of pronouns is very important as it helps in the study of relationship and hidden ideologies in the discourse. Pronouns have a relationship with person, spatial and discourse deixis which represent the function performed by anaphora, personal and demonstrative pronouns in the communication. Use of pronouns tells us about the agents, beneficiaries and the affected ones. Personal pronouns have two types on the basis of number, gender and person. "I" is the subject case of 1st person single pronoun and "me" is its objective case. The use of first person shows that the speaker is excluding others and making a personal statement or point of view. By becoming personal the speaker creates a positive effect and commitment with the goals.
The use of "we" which is plural first person pronoun which is used as subject and its object case is "us". "We" and "us" both are used to include the recipients in the discourse. "We" pronoun shows authority of the speaker because of his or her status. "You" is used to specify others during the discourse. It can be used to show unity and integrity. "They" and "them" are third person pronouns which are used to show that certain people are not included in the group. "My" and "mine" show personal involvement and commitment.  arguments about the government and its size and focused on the role of government in service to the nation. He said, "The question.... Government is big or small whether it works. " He put a comprehensive plan to change the current state of miserable affairs in America and gave a vision for prosperity and well-being of the nation. He used rhetoric devices very well to persuade the audience and also used metaphors in an excellent manner. He related his vision to the revolutionary spirit which was inherited in the foundation of the country. He motivated the American people by giving reference of the previous history of USA. He told about the ideals and values incorporated in the American Revolution, American dream and hard work which were source of inspiration for the nation. He described that they would reform the system of governance and the government would serve the common man which was according to the ideology of the Democrats.
Barack Obama clearly told the nation that all the people whether destitute, needy or rich had a common creed and blood. He talked with energy and in a loud voice which was showing his deep emotions and force of passions. He told the nation that still they had to continue their journey towards progress and well-being of the people. The nation had to complete the task to reach the goal declared by Jefferson that everyone should have his rights and value. He forced the nation to think that everyone who was living in America was American whether he or she was American by birth or an immigrant. He showed relationship of his oath with the oath taken by the immigrants for citizenship and showing commitment and courage for the rise of the American flag. There was fear of decline of the country but American people were having experience of such odd days and could meet all the issues. He said, "Today I say.... the challenges we face are real. But know this America, they will be met."

Transitions Analysis
The president after careful observation of the current scenario of the political situation, problems of the people and his promises which he made during the campaign set his inaugural address. The main transitions or moves in this address were as follows:

Salutations
Barack Obama started his speech by saying thank you to the audience. He was really in triumph after a long struggle for this day and looking emotional too. Because the support of the people was his strength so he started with thanking them as it was necessary to show his gratefulness to them. He did not use the words like "fellow Americans" and addressed the nation in an amiable way by saying, "My fellow Citizens, I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for the trust you've bestowed." Barack Hussein Obama made the people feel that he was there because of them and he paid his gratitude in an inspiring way by selecting a remarkable phrase which was explaining that Americans were seeing that day after too many sacrifices offered by their ancestors. Then he thanked his predecessor president George W. Bush for his services to the nation and help in smooth transfer of power but after that he criticized him for his policies and wrong decisions again and again in the speech.

Making Promises
America was facing hard days because of two ongoing wars and financial crisis. Per capita income was getting low and there was pressure on immigrants to leave the country. Obama did not give straight forward solution of these issues like end of ongoing wars, changes in the climate and economic crisis. During the inaugural address it was not suitable to give detailed statements and administrative arguments so he only pointed out the issues and his goals briefly. He asked the people feel to be ready to fight against the odd circumstances and sacrifices. He tried to inculcate a thinking of inner transition and encouragement in the nation. He said in paragraph 5 that they had chosen hope instead of fear to handle the issues with determination and unity of objectives instead of disintegration. He proclaimed that they would finish inferior jealousy, discrimination and old ideologies of breach which were eating the strands of unity. He affirmed that everyone was free in the country to have a chance to live a happy life.
In paragraph 7 he gave reference to the bitter state of the country and declared that they would take actions for creating job opportunities, growth and development. They would build and improve roads, bridges, digital connections and commerce and electricity distribution grids. He mentioned future improvement in the health and educational institutions. He emotionally declared, "We will harness the sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories." ijel.ccsenet.org International Journal of English Linguistics Vol. 8, No. 6;2018 In paragraph 8 he promised that if the government would not deliver, the programs would be discontinued. He declared that they would follow the foot-steps of their ancestors and American ideals set by them. In paragraphs 11 and 12 he declared that they would leave Iraq and try to reduce nuclear threats and global warming. He challenged the enemies that they could not break their spirit and could not defeat them. He promised a new period of peace in the world. In the last paragraph he promised that they would continue their journey towards prosperity and would keep their eyes fixed on the target.

Appeals
The nation was hoping that new administration would give some better plans for the eradication of poverty and to overcome the economic crisis. Barack Obama made it clear that the journey towards progress and prosperity was long and difficult and the people must be ready for sacrifices. In the first two paragraphs he described the grave situation of the economy and other problems in the country like loss of jobs, declining standard of schools and poor health facilities. But he motivated the nation by reminding that they had history of success in hard times by keeping ideals and dreams given in the constitution. In paragraph 4 he said that the difficulties were too many and could not be overcome in a short span of time but they could solve all the issues through determination and courage.
In paragraph 6 he said that Americans were a great nation and their greatness was earned after a long struggle so they must not think for short cuts but they should take risks and have high hopes and big hearts as it was not the way for the weak and faint hearted people. In the next paragraph he mentioned the productive power, inventiveness and capacity of the people and asked them to begin the work of rebuilding a new America. For the defense of the country he appealed to the nation that if the enemy was strong then they should become stronger and show that their spirit could not be broken and defeated. He asked the followers of all the religions that they should promote mutual respect and diffuse the conflicts. He appealed the people in paragraph 17 to meet the challenges through the values like hard work, honesty, patriotism, tolerance and courage.

Religious References
Use of religious references was a common tool of rhetoric which was used perfectly in his inaugural address. Barack Obama gave many references from the Biblical stories and to God. He showed himself as more religious than any other of his predecessors. He reminded the people that God bestowed them freedom as a gift. He gave the reference of God and religion to emphasize that Americans were the selected people by God who were living in America. His task was to make them feel united and strong. He started the address with the affirmation that Americans should remember the promise given by God that all were equal, free and had a chance to live happily as they wish. American nationality was based on these principles and he appealed the nation that they had to prove their promise and pay the price of citizenship as the promise was a duty for them and God called them to "shape an uncertain destiny."

Use of Pronouns
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