Non-Forest Woody Vegetation (Scattered Greenery) Case Study of the Samopše Settlement, Czech Republic

The development and management of the Czech landscape has been influenced by several key factors in the past. One important factor is the development of society, particularly political changes and ecological development. Others include the level of knowledge and understanding of technologies, scientific knowledge and the non-productive importance of the landscape, as well as the attitude of society and individuals towards the landscape. In the past, non-forest woody vegetation was a standard part of the European agricultural landscape and formed its typical appearance. The onset of collective farming during the second half of the twentieth century resulted in transforming the landscape into open fields without permanent vegetation. The landscape became everyone’s and no-one’s and was subject to orders, tasks and plans. The key goal of this article is to evaluate non-forest woody vegetation from a landscape-ecological aspect and compare the occurrence of non-forest woody vegetation in four landscape types. The submitted study presents various types of non-forest woody vegetation, the species present in elements of scattered greenery and the spatial arrangement depending on the method of management and use of the territory.


The Initial Role of Humans in the Historical Context of the Development of the Landscape
Humans were fully dependent on nature throughout the entire Palaeolithic (Early Stone Age) and Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age). It was only in the Neolithic (Later Stone Age) that the human impact on vegetation and forests increased as nomadic hunters gradually became herders and farmers and established relatively permanent settlements. The region of Central Europe was covered by mixed forests of oak, elm and lime trees to high altitudes, with spruce forests growing in the mountains and mountain pine growing even higher. During this time, Neolithic people began affecting the landscape by pasturing herds, farming soil and expanding agricultural areas and affecting the structure of the landscape. The Slavs appeared in Central Europe around the middle of the first millennium. The onset of the High Middle Ages meant fundamental and rapid changes in the landscapedeforestation and an overall change to the character of the landscape and the origins of an intensively used, park-type landscape with a dense mosaic of pastures and fields (Schama, 1995). The period of the first great colonisation was followed by the period of the Hussite wars, which destroyed the entire region. In the fifteenth century, sheep husbandry, pond management and spontaneous forestation flourished. Extraction of ore and its processing in particular (charcoal use in metallurgical processes) resulted in the devastation of forests. Wood was transported over waterways and resulted in the necessary regulation of watercourses (Schama, 1995). The Thirty Years' War devastated the land and decreased the population and settlements (Löw & Míchal, 2003). Due to industrialisation, society began to create a cohesive and completely transformed space that displaced the natural landscape.

The Landscape of the Czech Republic in the Twentieth Century
The twentieth century was a period of fundamental change and dramatic reversals (Sklenička, 2003) in the development of the landscape in what is the Czech Republic today. After the Second World War, the German population was displaced from the border zone, which was subsequently colonised by Czech nationals (approx. 1.7 million ha) by decree of President E. Beneš -No. 12/1945 on the settlement of agricultural land confiscated in this manner (Petráň, 1985). The initial intervention into the agricultural landscape occurred during the first years of existence of the JZD (Agricultural Cooperative Units), when the first field borders and secondary field tracks were eliminated and the proportion of chemical protection of plants was increased. In subsequent decades, other stabilising landscape elements also disappeared-meadows near springs and water meadows near streams, field borders, a number of field tracks, solitary and line vegetation, groves, sunken lanes and areas of fallow land which were cultivated (Lokoč & Lokočová, 2010). Collectivisation led to the destruction of personal property and became famous for ploughing field borders during the 1950s, initiated intensive erosion processes, caused water management conditions to worsen and broke people's emotional connections to the rural landscape. The landscape became an area for mass production (Lokoč & Lokočová, 2010). The merging of enterprises into large units covering multiple cadastres and the use of chemicals in plant production was also a negative aspect. The ability to effectively eliminate weeds using chemicals and fertilise arbitrarily led to the neglect of sowing procedures (Löw & Míchal, 2003). Opposition to private ownership of land eliminated personal responsibility for its condition and appearance. Reduction of grassland areas and their transformation into ploughed land (on average 75 % of agricultural land was ploughed, in some cases up to 100 %) increased wind and water erosion by up to ten times. Erosion was also caused by growing wide row crops (sweet corn, potatoes and beet) on sloping land (hilly areas and highlands). Unfortunately, this situation persists in a number of areas in our landscape today-over half of ploughed land is at risk (Lipský, 2000). The aesthetic value of the agricultural landscape was noticeably reduced and particularly indicates the loss of variety of stimuli in a rugged and varied cultivated landscape and its transformation into a repetitious and monotonous production area (Doucha, 2001). Agriculture was subject to the pressure of increasing production, which corresponded to an intolerable degree of intensification (Cílek, 2011). Immediately after 1989, agricultural activities which had led to the predominance of agricultural land in the landscape were supressed. A period of restoration of the non-productive functions of the landscape began (Lokoč & Lokočová, 2010).  Prudký, (2001) ;Sklenička, (2003) ;Sláviková,( 1984) ;Trnka, (2001) ;Supuka, Schlampová & Jančura, (1999)).

Material and Methods
A detailed field survey was performed in the model research area to acquire the necessary information about the area, condition and type of scattered greenery elements. The comprehensive research methodology includes a dendrological survey of the current condition of non-forest woody structure growth according to typology (Bulíř & Škorpík, 1988) and the vitality of scattered greenery structures according to methodology (Mareček, 1986 (Koblížek, 2000;Vondra Krupková, 2018). Particular attention is given to the dendrological survey and areas of individual existing elements of non-forest woody vegetation (land survey 2016-2017). The field survey was based on a landscape assessment of scattered greenery in the open landscape. The survey took place according to previously executed assessments. The purpose of creating an inventory was to acquire information about the composition of growth and its vitality and suitability, which could then be used to devise a management strategy for scattered greenery in the areas examined. From a forestry and dendrological point of view and in combination with the typology of vegetation, materials were then created for general rules that could establish, design, assess and maintain the functionality of non-forest woody vegetation elements, as well as preserve or expand the biodiversity of individual locations in compliance with individual vegetation types.

Model Area
Samopše is located in the district of Kutná Hora (Fig. 1) at the south-eastern edge of the Central Bohemian Region, which is part of the Bohemian Massif and one of the oldest parts of the European continent. It spreads across the northern edge of the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands between the central watercourses of the Sázava and Labe rivers. The area of this district does not have a unified natural character. Many various geological influences have affected its appearance. It is one of three orographic units the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands, the Čáslava Basin and the Labe Lowlands. The selected area is interesting from its natural and cultural-historical aspects. A typical feature of the village of Samopše (Fig. 1) is the presence of several landscape types (Table  2), including the deeply cut valley of the Sázava River and the related importance of the area in terms of extra-regional and regional territorial ecological stability systems. The farming methods used by local residents were dependent on the natural conditions predetermined by the shape of the landscape in which they lived. The result of their long-term activities is a different landscape structure in individual settlements, which gives this area a specific and typical landscape character.   Figure 3 3

.3 PřÍVla
The settlem the bounda the so-call defined as tributaries A landscap  Thirteen extensive and scattered non-forest woody vegetation elements were recorded at the Přívlaky settlement, located in the open landscape. The total area of scattered greenery in this settlement is 42,849 m 2 (i.e., 4.76 % of the total area of the territory), with 43 % of the elements present as line structures of scattered greenery, 38 % as blanket elements and 15% as spot elements in the form of solitary specimens.
The total area of non-forest woody vegetation elements in the Přívlaky settlement is 42,849 m 2 , which forms 4.76 % of the total area and corresponds to 1 m 2 of scattered greenery per approx. 17.22 m 2 of the total area.
The inventory gathered and field survey (Table 4) confirmed the theoretical findings of the composition of vegetation in the area examined, which should correspond to the characteristics found in the Map of Potentially Natural Vegetation (Neuhäuslová et al., 1998), whereas the vegetation surrounding the watercourse corresponds to locations with wetter conditions, the vegetation near the settlement (birch avenues) represents human influence (intentional planting) and the species composition of scattered greenery in the landscape corresponds to the origin of the specific element (retreating forest, spontaneous spreading and human intervention in the form of artificial planting and additional planting). The dominant species in the scattered greenery growth is Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa ssp. L.), with a 19 % occurrence of all types of scattered greenery types. The second and third most frequent species are Silver Birch (Betula pendula L.) and Common Plum (Prunus domestica ssp. L.). In the area surrounding the watercourse, the most frequent species are White Willow (Salix alba L.) and Common Alder (Alnus glutinosa L.). Thermophilic Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas L.) occasionally appears in some non-forest woody vegetation elements.   Statistical assessment shows that the assessed vitality of growth was mostly very good (Table 5). The values show that of the total number of inventoried segments of individual elements of non-forest woody vegetation, 15 segments (94 %) are classified as category A and B, which are healthy and vital woody plants with long-term prospects for the future. This condition is favourable for the preservation of the current elements of non-forest woody vegetation, landscape character and appearance. Only one vegetation element (6 %) of the total value has low vitality and plantation value. No vegetation elements were classified as type D under the assessment criteria.

Mrchojedy Settlement
The boundaries of the Mrchojedy settlement (Fig. 5) adjoin the defined boundaries of the settlement of Budín in the north-western section of the cadastral area. The total area of the settlement is 1,798,435 m 2 . An agricultural landscape is typical of the Mrchojedy settlement. Löw & Novák (2006) describe this type as a landscape strongly affected by human cultivation. Forests cover less than 10 % of this area, and 90 % is agricultural land consisting of fields and permanent grassland. The landscape has a visually open character.

Samopše Settlement
The total area of this settlement is 2,524,000 m 2 . The settlement of Samopše (Fig. 6) is an exemplary "forest-agricultural landscape" type, "which is a harmonious rural landscape with varied presence of "soft" forms of topographical relief and methods of use of the area. Communities of smaller copses, field boundaries, bank growth along streams and areas of secondary grassland, mostly almost natural, and various methods of use of the area typically appear to a great degree, also due to the varied topographical relief. These are of a semi-open character" (Löw & Novák, 2006). enrr.ccsenet Figure 6 Thirty-thre field boun specimens Carpinus betulus L., Quercus robur L., Acer campestre L., Prunus spinosa ssp.

General Rules for Establishing, Proposing, Evaluating and Maintaining the Function of Non-Forest Woody Vegetation Elements
When proposing and establishing woody vegetation elements, it is important to consider what their function and final character will be. The proposed spatial and species structure is based on local conditions, their required function, and the character of the landscape. The regional characteristics of non-forest woody vegetation may differ significantly and have typical forms for each region. These forms are based on natural conditions and the traditional management and maintenance methods and technologies. Traditional forms of non-forest woody vegetation may serve as an example for establishing new woody biotopes in the area. Their function, location in space and their species and spatial structures may be used as examples. When establishing woody elements, we prefer autochthonous species to introduced species. We can base a selection of suitable taxons on the species structure of woody formations in the area we want to establish the element in. When planning the species structure of woody elements, we must combine slow-growing (long-lived) species with fast-growing (short-lived) species (Forman & Gordon, 1993).
Evaluating non-forest woody vegetation is an important part of assessing the landscape in the field of landscape ecology. Multiple methodological approaches are available to evaluate non-forest woody vegetation, which can be divided into four groups depending on the purpose of the evaluation: (a) biological -evaluation of the current condition of woody plants, their physiognomic properties, species identification, function (ecosystem, biotope) with the goal of conservation of nature and biodiversity; (b) functional -determination of the functional use of non-forest woody vegetation from the viewpoint of humans, determination of functional relationships with the goal of protecting agricultural land and securing the polyfunctionality of the landscape; (c) landscapeevaluation of the aesthetic integration of non-forest woody vegetation into the landscape's composition using dendrological evaluation of non-forest woody vegetation (species, crown shape, tree height); (d) historicalevaluation of dynamic space-time changes in non-forest woody vegetation, development of the overall occurrence and structure of the landscape (Baudry, Bunce & Burel, 2000).
Woody elements, particularly those whose origin is conditional to human activity, require the corresponding care in order to maintain their required functions and achieve a sufficient lifespan. The intensity of this care and the nature of intervention into woody vegetation elements is governed by the developmental stage of these woody plants, the species of woody plants and the function and the target condition of the non-forest woody biotope. Maintaining existing non-forest woody vegetation elements will differ from the care of newly established elements (Sláviková, 1987). The function of EXISTING non-forest woody vegetation is maintained by considerate intervention consisting of maintenance care (pruning, thinning and additional planting) in order to assure the long-term prospects of individual elements. By contrast, PROPOSED non-forest woody vegetation elements require initial developmental care (tree anchoring, chemical protection of the planted woody plants, grass mowing, training) during the first years after planting, which leads to rapid and high-quality fulfilment of the function of woody growth and to the creation of elements with the smallest possible demands in maintenance and care. The transition to maintenance and care takes place in subsequent years and should happen gradually over areas and time. The types of measures and appropriate intervals depend heavily on the type of woody vegetation.
The restoration of high-quality, scattered non-forest woody vegetation in the landscape is an essential condition for stopping the process of destabilisation of the agrarian landscape and the depletion of natural biodiversity, as well as renewing the diversity of the landscape and the life it contains (Vondra Krupková, 2018).
While non-forest woody vegetation was a normal part of the agricultural landscape in the past and created the landscape's typical appearance, the onset of collective farming during the second half of the twentieth century transformed the landscape into an environment of open fields without permanent vegetation (Meeus, 1995).
Non-forest woody vegetation is a characteristic feature of many European landscapes (Burel & Baudry 1995). Similar landscapes are currently rare in Central and Eastern Europe (Riezner, 2008). Technological changes and the intensification and mechanisation of agriculture had similar consequences in both Eastern and Western Europe (Burel & Baudry, 1990;Barr & Gillespie, 2000;Jongman, 2002;Plieninger, Schleyer, Mantel & Hoster, 2012). McCollin (2000) emphasises that during the period 1984-1994, some 158,000 km of hedgerows were lost from the British landscape, i.e., a third of their total existing length in 1984. Jongman (2002) states that the total length of line vegetation structures in Holland fell by 80 % over a period of 80 years. This information illustrates that the elimination and reduction of areas of non-forest woody vegetation in open agricultural landscapes is not only applicable to the former Czechoslovakia (Pollard, Hooper & Moore, 1974;Burel & Baudry, 1990;Mérot, 1999;Oreszczyn & Lane, 1999;Petit, Stuart, Gillespie & Barr, 2003;French & Cummins, 2001;Ernoult & Alard, 2011).
Line vegetation is an important part of scattered greenery (Bennet, 1990). Solitary woody plants or vegetation surrounding watercourses consist mainly of autochthonous species. Scattered greenery in the form of woody plants in field boundaries and groves occurs to a lesser degree in the deforested areas of meadows and pastures near settlements are frequent elements of scattered greenery are an important tool for harmonising the landscape (Kavka & Šindelářová, 1978). A key feature of the Czech countryside is a persistent close link to specific areas and types of woody plant with specific time periods. The identity of greenery has become an important feature of the landscape's character (Bulíř & Škorpík, 1988).